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What are inverters and converters? What do they do?

星期一, 9 9 月, 2024

Electricity is ubiquitous in our lives, and the use of all devices is closely related to electricity. The use of electricity depends on how to control and convert it. Among them, the indispensable tools are inverters and converters, which can convert electrical energy into different forms to meet various needs.

What are AC and DC?

1. Definition of alternating current and direct current:

Alternating current (AC) refers to the current whose direction changes periodically over time, and the average current in one cycle is zero.

The waveform of alternating current is usually a sine curve, but there can also be other waveforms, such as triangular waves and square waves. Alternating current is widely used in power transmission and industrial applications.

Inverters and converters? What effect do they have on current flow?

Direct current (DC) refers to the current whose direction is constant.

The magnitude and direction of direct current do not change with time. Common DC power sources include dry batteries and storage batteries. The direction of pulsating direct current does not change, but the magnitude changes with time. It usually needs to be filtered to become smooth direct current.

2. The difference between AC and DC:

The main difference between AC and DC is whether the direction of the current changes over time.

The direction of AC changes periodically, while the direction of DC remains unchanged. In addition, the average value of AC in a cycle is zero, while the current and voltage of DC remain constant.

3. Application scenarios of AC and DC:

AC is mainly used for power transmission and industrial applications because its waveform is a sinusoidal curve, which is suitable for long-distance transmission. DC is often used in situations where constant current is required, such as battery-powered electronic devices.

How do you convert from DC to AC?

DC can be converted into AC through an inverter. The inverter usually consists of an inverter bridge, control logic, and filter circuits.

Inversion is a current conversion process opposite to rectification, which converts DC into AC. When the inverter side, i.e., the AC side, is connected to the power grid, it is called active inversion, and when the inverter side, i.e., the AC side, is directly connected to the load, it is called passive inversion.

The inverter circuit can convert DC power into AC power of any frequency and voltage under the control of the control circuit, so it is widely used, for example, when DC power is needed to supply power to AC loads.

What is dc to ac inverter?

‌Inverter is a device that converts DC power into AC power. ‌‌

The inverter is mainly composed of an inverter bridge, control logic and filter circuit, which can convert DC power (such as batteries, storage batteries) into fixed frequency and voltage or frequency and voltage AC power, usually 220V, 50Hz sine wave.

Inverters are particularly widely used in automobiles. They can drive various electrical appliances and tools by connecting to batteries, making it possible to use household appliances when driving or traveling.

Inverters can be divided into sine wave inverters and square wave inverters according to the output waveform. Although the sine wave inverter is more expensive, it can be applied to various loads, and the output waveform is closer to the mains, which is friendly to electrical equipment.

The efficiency of the inverter is an important indicator of its performance, which indicates the ratio of output power to input power. With the development of technology, inverters are showing a trend of high frequency, high performance and miniaturization, and are widely used in various fields of power electronics technology.

What is dc to ac converter?

An AC to DC converter is a device whose main function is to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). Such converters are commonly used in household appliances, computers, mobile phone chargers and other devices to convert the AC power provided by the power grid into the DC power required by the device.

The working principle of the AC/DC converter involves converting the AC power into smooth DC power through a rectification and filtering process. This converter can be bidirectional in terms of power flow, that is, power can flow from the power source to the load (called rectification) or from the load back to the power source (called active inversion).

The working principle of the AC/DC converter involves several key steps:

‌Rectification‌: Converting AC power into unidirectional pulsating DC power is achieved by using a rectifier, which can be a half-wave rectifier or a full-wave rectifier, depending on the specific technology used.

‌Filtering‌: Filtering is performed by using capacitors to eliminate the pulsating components generated during the rectification process to obtain a smoother DC power.

‌Voltage stabilization‌: In some applications, voltage stabilization may also be required to ensure the stability of the output voltage.

The design and application of AC/DC converters are limited by many factors, including safety standards, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements, and power system optimization design.

In addition, the use of high-voltage, high-current switches increases the power consumption, which to a certain extent limits the modularization process of AC/DC converters.

What is the difference between an inverter and converter?

The main difference between an inverter and a converter is that they have different functions and conversion directions. ‌

Although inverters and converters sound similar, their functions and conversion directions are completely different. The main function of an inverter is to convert direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC), while a converter does the opposite, converting AC into DC. This difference makes them play their respective roles in different application scenarios.

1. ‌Inverter‌:

The main application of an inverter includes converting electricity generated by a DC power source (such as a battery) into AC to meet the needs of AC equipment. The advantages of the inverter include high conversion efficiency, fast startup, good safety performance, etc., but it may also generate noise due to its working principle, and corresponding countermeasures need to be taken to reduce the noise.

2. Converter:

Unlike the inverter, the main function of the converter is to convert AC to DC.

This is usually achieved through the process of half-wave rectification and full-wave rectification, which involves passing the positive half-cycle or positive and negative cycles of AC through the rectifier circuit, and then further processing through capacitor filtering and voltage stabilization circuit to finally obtain DC.

Converters are widely used in various electronic devices that need to convert AC power to DC power.

In general, although inverters and converters are similar in name, their functions and conversion directions are completely different. Inverters convert DC to AC and are suitable for using DC power for AC devices; while converters convert AC to DC to meet the needs of devices that require DC power.

Why would you use an inverter?

The main reason for using an inverter is to convert DC to AC to meet the power needs of various devices and systems. ‌

The main function of the inverter is to convert direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC), which is necessary in many fields and scenarios. Here are some of the main uses of the inverter:

1. Household electricity: The inverter can convert the DC power of the car battery or other DC power source into the AC power required by household appliances, so that the car or other DC power source can power household devices.

2. Emergency power supply: In the event of a power outage or power outage, the inverter can convert the DC power of the backup power source (such as gasoline generators, solar panels, etc.) into AC power to provide power support for key equipment.

3. Electronic devices: Many portable electronic devices (such as laptops, mobile phones, cameras, etc.) use DC batteries as power sources. The inverter can convert DC power into AC power to provide power for these devices.

4. Industrial applications: In industrial production, the inverter can convert high-voltage DC power into low-voltage AC power to meet the power needs of different equipment and systems.

5. Electric vehicle charging: With the popularity of electric vehicles, inverters are increasingly used in electric vehicle charging stations, which convert direct current from the power grid into alternating current required by electric vehicle batteries.

6. Radio communication: In radio communication, inverters are used to convert direct current into radio frequency power to transmit and receive radio signals.

Therefore, inverters play an indispensable role in modern society and are widely used in various fields to provide necessary power conversion and support for various devices and systems.

What are the disadvantages of an inverter?

1. Harm to batteries: Inverters increase the burden on batteries and shorten the life of batteries. Inverters generate electromagnetic interference and heat when working, which may interfere with batteries, causing unstable battery voltage or internal damage to batteries.

2. Energy loss: The conversion efficiency of inverters is relatively low, and there will be a certain amount of energy loss.

3. High cost: The cost of inverters is high, which may not be suitable for some low-cost applications.

4. May generate electromagnetic interference and heat: The inverter will generate high-frequency electromagnetic waves and a certain amount of heat when working, which may affect the working performance of other electronic equipment and may even cause safety problems.

In summary, although the inverter provides convenience in many applications, its disadvantages cannot be ignored, including energy loss, high cost, possible electromagnetic interference and heat, and potential safety hazards.

Conclusion:

Inverters and converters are indispensable in modern electrical systems to ensure that energy flows to where it is needed in the right form. Whether it is converting DC to AC for renewable energy systems, using batteries to power equipment, or ensuring uninterruptible power supply, these tools can achieve a smooth transition between different types of current.

Alumina ceramic materials

1). 99 alumina
99 alumina refers to alumina materials with a purity of 99% or higher. It is usually made of chemically pure alumina or high-purity alumina as raw materials, and is made through multiple processes such as high-temperature calcination, crushing, molding, and sintering. Compared with 96 alumina, 99 alumina has higher chemical purity, density and hardness, as well as better high-temperature stability and corrosion resistance.

99 alumina is widely used in electronics, machinery, chemical industry, aerospace and other fields. In the electronics field, 99 alumina is usually used to manufacture high-frequency electronic components, integrated circuit packaging, dielectrics and other devices; in the mechanical field, 99 alumina is mainly used to manufacture high-hardness ceramic tools, bearing balls, etc.; in the chemical field, 99 alumina can be used to manufacture catalysts and adsorbents; in the aerospace field, 99 alumina is often used to manufacture high-temperature structural parts, aircraft engine parts, etc.

2). 96 alumina
96 alumina, also known as industrial alumina or α-alumina, is a high-purity ceramic material. Its chemical formula is Al2O3, which belongs to oxide ceramics. 96 alumina is usually made of alumina powder through pressing, molding, sintering and other processes. The “96” here means that its aluminum oxide purity reaches more than 96%. 96 alumina has the characteristics of high hardness, high strength, high wear resistance, and good high temperature stability. It is widely used in the manufacture of ceramic products, refractory materials, abrasives, electronic devices and other fields.

Advantages of 99 alumina substrate:

High purity, usually reaching a purity level of 99.99%, excellent electrical properties, high dielectric constant and low dielectric loss.
Good high temperature stability, can work stably in high temperature environment, and can usually withstand temperatures up to 1700℃.
High mechanical strength, high strength, high hardness, not easy to be damaged, and can withstand greater force and pressure.
It has excellent corrosion resistance, is not corroded by most chemical substances, and is suitable for chemical media such as acids and alkalis.
It can be prepared into a thinner substrate, which is conducive to the preparation of microelectronic devices.

Advantages of 96 alumina substrate:
Cheaper than 99 alumina substrate, the cost is relatively low.
It is easier to process than 99 alumina substrate, and can be processed by cutting, drilling and other processing, which is convenient for preparing substrates of various shapes.
In some low-temperature and low-electric field strength applications, the dielectric constant and dielectric loss are lower than those of 99 alumina substrate, and it has better signal transmission performance.

Disadvantages:
Compared with 99 alumina substrate, 96 alumina substrate has lower purity, higher dielectric constant and dielectric loss.
It is prone to brittle fracture in high temperature environment.

Alumina ceramic application industry
99 alumina substrate: suitable for high-power LED, high-voltage integrated circuit, high-temperature sensor, high-frequency electronic components and other fields.
96 alumina substrate: suitable for low-power electronic components, sensors, capacitors, micro relays, microwave components and other fields.

Aluminum nitride ceramic material (AlN)

Aluminum nitride ceramic material (AlN)

Aluminum nitride ceramic is a high-performance ceramic material made of aluminum nitride powder sintered at high temperature. Its main component is aluminum nitride (AlN), which has the characteristics of high melting point (about 2800℃), hardness (9.0 to 9.5Mohs), strength and thermal conductivity. At the same time, it also has good insulation performance, chemical stability and high temperature resistance. Due to these characteristics, Sliton aluminum nitride ceramic circuit boards are widely used in microelectronics, optoelectronics, power electronics, aerospace and other fields.

Advantages

High hardness: The hardness of aluminum nitride is close to that of diamond, which is more than 3 times that of traditional alumina. It can be used to make high-strength mechanical parts.
High strength: Aluminum nitride has high strength, good wear resistance and corrosion resistance, and can be used to make high-load, high-wear and corrosion-resistant parts.
High thermal conductivity: The thermal conductivity of aluminum nitride is very high, reaching 170-230W/(m·K), which is more than 4 times that of traditional aluminum oxide. It can be used to make high-power, high-frequency RF components.
High insulation: The dielectric constant of aluminum nitride is low, about 1/3 of that of traditional aluminum oxide, and can be used to make high-frequency, high-precision microwave components.
Anti-oxidation: Aluminum nitride has good anti-oxidation properties at high temperatures and can be used to make parts in high-temperature environments.

Application of aluminum nitride ceramics
Widely used in semiconductors, aerospace, electronics, military and other fields. For example, it is used to make high-frequency RF devices, microwave components, electronic ceramics, thermistors, high-temperature sensors, etc.

Zirconia ceramic material (ZrO2)

Zirconium oxide ceramic material is a ceramic material with high strength, high hardness, high temperature tolerance, corrosion resistance and good insulation performance. Its chemical formula is ZrO2, and it is usually stabilized to improve the stability and wear resistance of its lattice. Zirconia ceramic material has the characteristics of low thermal conductivity and high melting point, so it is widely used in industrial fields with strict requirements such as high temperature, high pressure, high speed and high precision, such as aerospace, electronics, medical and energy.
Advantages

High hardness: The hardness of zirconia ceramics is very high, usually reaching HRA90 or above, even up to HRA95, which is more than 10 times that of steel.
High strength: Zirconia ceramics have extremely high strength, which can reach 900MPa at room temperature, and can still maintain high strength at high temperature.
Good wear resistance: Zirconia ceramics have high surface flatness and high hardness, so they have good wear resistance.
Good corrosion resistance: Zirconia ceramics are chemically inert and not easily corroded by chemicals such as acids and alkalis, and can operate stably for a long time in harsh environments.
Excellent insulation performance: Zirconia ceramics have excellent insulation performance and can be used for high-voltage insulation materials.
Good high-temperature stability: Zirconia ceramics have extremely high melting points and high-temperature stability, and can be used for a long time in high-temperature environments.

Application of Zirconia Ceramics
Widely used in high-end manufacturing, electronics, aerospace, medical equipment, chemical industry and other fields, such as abrasives, high-temperature structures, pneumatic components, medical equipment, sensors, capacitors, etc.

Silicon carbide ceramic material (SiC)

Silicon carbide is a compound with the chemical formula SiC, which is composed of two elements: silicon and carbon. It is a ceramic material that is resistant to high temperature, corrosion, and extremely hard. It is also an industrial material widely used in extreme environments such as high temperature, high frequency, and high pressure. Silicon carbide has excellent mechanical, electromagnetic, and thermal properties, and is therefore widely used in semiconductors, disks, aerospace, and other fields. In addition, silicon carbide has good semiconductor properties and is also widely used in power electronics, optoelectronics, and other fields.
Advantages

High hardness: The hardness of silicon carbide material is 5 times higher than that of steel and 3 times higher than that of aluminum.
High strength: The strength of silicon carbide material is high, and the tensile strength can reach more than 400MPa.
High temperature resistance: Silicon carbide material has a high melting point and can withstand high temperature thermal shock. The general use temperature is 1200℃-1600℃.
Good oxidation resistance: Silicon carbide material can resist high temperature oxidation corrosion and can be used in air.
Good wear resistance: Silicon carbide material has high hardness, low friction coefficient and good wear resistance.
Good thermal conductivity: Silicon carbide material has excellent thermal conductivity, which is 2-3 times that of metal and can effectively dissipate heat.
Good chemical stability: Silicon carbide material has good chemical stability and will not be corroded by acid, alkali, etc.

Silicon carbide ceramic PCB application
Widely used in high temperature, high pressure, high speed, high load, corrosion resistance and other fields, such as power, electronics, machinery, aviation, metallurgy and other industries.

Silicon nitride ceramic material (Si3N4)

Silicon nitride ceramic material is a high-temperature ceramic material based on nitrogen and silicon elements. It has excellent properties such as high strength, high hardness, high wear resistance, high temperature resistance, oxidation resistance, and corrosion resistance. Its chemical stability is extremely high and is not easily corroded by acids, alkalis, solvents, etc. The hardness of silicon nitride ceramic materials is comparable to that of diamond, or even higher, reaching about 24GPa. It is harder and less prone to wear than ordinary ceramic materials. At the same time, it has good insulation properties and thermal stability, and can work stably for a long time in high temperature environments.

Advantages of silicon nitride ceramic PCB materials

High hardness: The hardness of silicon nitride ceramic materials is close to that of diamond, which can reach more than 30GPa.
High strength: The bending strength of silicon nitride ceramic materials is high, which can reach more than 1000MPa.
High wear resistance: Silicon nitride ceramic materials have good wear resistance and can be used to manufacture high-speed bearings and cutting tools, etc.
High temperature resistance: Silicon nitride ceramic materials have high high temperature resistance and can be used in high temperature environments above 1000°C.
Corrosion resistance: Silicon nitride ceramic materials have excellent corrosion resistance and can be used in some acidic and alkaline working environments.
Lightweight: Silicon nitride ceramic materials are lighter than steel and can be used in lightweight design.

Silicon nitride ceramic PCB applications
Widely used in aerospace, optoelectronics, electronics, semiconductors, machinery and other fields.

Piezoelectric ceramic materials

Piezoelectric ceramic materials are ceramic materials with piezoelectric effect, which can deform under external electric field or mechanical stress, and generate electric charge when deformed. They are usually made of materials such as barium lead oxide (Pb(Zr,Ti)O3) or niobium lead oxide (Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3-PbTiO3) as the main components and sintered.

Advantages

Piezoelectric effect: It can convert mechanical stress into electrical signals, or convert electrical signals into mechanical motion. This effect makes piezoelectric ceramic materials widely used in sensors, actuators, acoustic wave devices and other fields.
Dielectric properties: With high dielectric constant and low dielectric loss, piezoelectric ceramic materials are used as capacitors, filters, etc. in electronic components.
Mechanical properties: With high hardness, strength and wear resistance, piezoelectric ceramic materials are used in mechanical engineering.
Thermal stability: With good thermal stability and high temperature resistance, it can work stably in high temperature environment.
Piezoelectric ceramic PCB applications
Widely used in sensors, actuators, acoustic wave devices, electronic components, mechanical engineering and other fields.

Diamond ceramic material

Diamond ceramic material is a new type of material made by sintering diamond powder and ceramic as raw materials at high temperature and high pressure. Because diamond has extremely high hardness, reaching Mohs hardness level 10, and has excellent wear resistance, corrosion resistance and high temperature oxidation resistance, diamond ceramic material has extremely high physical and chemical properties.

Advantages of diamond ceramic PCB material

Extremely high hardness and strength, more wear-resistant, scratch-resistant and impact-resistant than ordinary ceramic materials;
Excellent corrosion resistance, able to resist corrosive media such as strong acids and alkalis;
Excellent high-temperature oxidation resistance, can be used for a long time at high temperature without damage;
Excellent thermal conductivity and insulation performance;
Easy to process into ceramic products of various shapes and sizes.

Application of diamond ceramic PCB
Diamond ceramic materials are widely used in high-end machinery, electronics, optics, medical and chemical fields, such as bearings, nozzles, cutting tools, hydraulic cylinders, electrical insulation parts, laser parts, etc.

Sapphire ceramic material

Sapphire ceramic material, also known as synthetic sapphire (Synthetic Sapphire), is a man-made single crystal material with excellent properties such as high hardness, high wear resistance and high corrosion resistance. The main component of sapphire ceramic material is aluminum oxide (Al2O3), which is prepared by melting or heat treatment at high temperature.

Advantages of sapphire ceramic material:

High hardness: The hardness of sapphire ceramic material is second only to diamond, and it has high wear resistance.
High corrosion resistance: Sapphire ceramic material has excellent corrosion resistance and can be used stably for a long time in harsh environments such as strong acid and strong alkali.
High light transmittance: Sapphire ceramic material has high light transmittance and can be used in optics, laser and other fields.

What does PCBA mean?

PCBA is the abbreviation of Printed Circuit Board Assembly, which refers to the process of welding, inserting, etc. of electronic components to the circuit board, and welding, inserting, etc. PCBA is an indispensable and important link in the manufacture of electronic products, which directly affects the performance stability and service life of electronic products.

The manufacturing process of PCBA mainly includes components mounting, welding, post-welding processing and functional testing. The first is the component mounting, which is a process of welding the patch components, plug-in components, etc., to the PCB. Then there is welding, through traditional wave soldering or modern lead-free welding and other methods, the components are firmly fixed on the PCB. After that, the welding process is mainly to remove the welding slag on the PCBA surface, clean the PCBA surface, and check the solder joints and components of PCBA. Finally, the functional test is carried out, which is the last step in the PCBA process, and the PCBA is fully functional tested by various test equipment to ensure the stability and reliability of PCBA.

Applications of PCBA

PCBA products are widely used in various electronic products, such as household appliances, communication equipment, automotive electronics, industrial control equipment, etc. You can see it everywhere.

Different electronic products have different requirements for PCBA. Some require PCBA to be small and exquisite, some require PCBA to be high temperature and high pressure resistant, and some require PCBA to be waterproof and dustproof. With the rapid development of 5G, artificial intelligence, Internet of Things and other fields, PCBA will be more widely used, and PCBA’s performance and reliability requirements will also be higher.

Common components on a PCBA and their symbols

1. Resistor

Resistors are one of the most commonly used electronic components in PCBA, used to limit the current in the circuit. According to different materials, structures, and resistance values, resistors can be divided into fixed resistors, variable resistors, and special resistors. Resistors are widely used in various circuits, such as power circuits, amplification circuits, signal processing circuits, etc., to achieve current regulation and control.

2. Capacitor

A capacitor is a component that stores charge and electrical energy, with the characteristic of blocking direct current and passing alternating current. In PCBA, capacitors are commonly used in circuits such as filtering, coupling, tuning, and bypassing to improve circuit performance and stability. According to their different structures and applications, capacitors can be divided into fixed capacitors, variable capacitors, and fine tuned capacitors.

3. Inductor

Inductor, also known as induction coil, has the function of storing magnetic energy. In circuits, inductors can prevent changes in current and play a role in filtering and stabilizing the current. Inductance has a wide range of applications in power filtering, signal processing, and other fields.

4. Diode

A diode is an electronic component with unidirectional conductivity, widely used in circuits such as rectification, detection, and voltage regulation. In PCBA, diodes can achieve functions such as voltage regulation, signal amplification, and switch control in the circuit. Common diodes include silicon diodes and germanium diodes, whose performance parameters such as forward voltage drop and reverse breakdown voltage determine their application scenarios.

5. Transistor

Transistors are electronic components with functions such as amplification and switching, and are the core components that make up various circuits. In PCBA, transistors are commonly used in amplification circuits, oscillation circuits, switch circuits, etc. to achieve signal amplification, frequency conversion, and circuit control. There are many types of transistors, including bipolar transistors, field-effect transistors, etc., each with its own characteristics, widely used in various electronic devices.

6. IC Integrated circuit

Integrated circuit is an electronic component that integrates multiple electronic components on a single chip, with advantages such as small size, low power consumption, and stable performance. In PCBA, integrated circuits are key components for implementing various complex functions, such as digital signal processing, analog signal processing, communication interfaces, etc. Common integrated circuits include operational amplifiers, logic gate circuits, microprocessors, etc., which are widely used in various intelligent devices and systems.

7. Sensor

Sensors can sense physical quantities or states in the environment and convert them into electrical signals for output. In PCBA, sensors are commonly used to detect parameters such as temperature, humidity, light, pressure, etc., providing data support for intelligent control of electronic devices. There are various types of sensors with different performances, and choosing the appropriate sensor is crucial for improving the performance and user experience of electronic devices.

8. Controllable silicon rectifier (SCR)

Also known as thyristors, silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR) are similar to transistors and diodes – their working principle is essentially the coordinated operation of two transistors. Although SCR also has three pins, they are composed of four layers of silicon material instead of three layers, and are only used as switches, not amplifiers. Unlike single transistors that require continuous current to remain on, SCR only requires one pulse to activate the switch. They are very suitable for converting large amounts of electricity.

9. Crystal oscillator

Crystal oscillators provide clock signals in many circuits that require precise and stable timing. By physically oscillating piezoelectric materials (such as crystals), they generate periodic electronic signals, hence their name. Each crystal oscillator is designed to vibrate at a specific frequency, which is more stable, economical, and smaller in size than other timing methods. That’s why they are commonly used for precise timing in microcontrollers, or more commonly as clock components in quartz watches.

10. Switches and relays

A basic and easily overlooked component, a switch is simply a power button that controls the current in a circuit by switching between open or closed circuits. They vary greatly in appearance, from sliders, rotations, buttons, levers, toggles, key switches, and more. Similarly, a relay is an electromagnetic switch that operates through a solenoid, acting like a temporary magnet when a current flows through it. They act as switches and amplify small currents into larger ones.

Now that you’re familiar with some basic electronic components, why not dive into creating your own electronics project? Instead of starting with a complex project featuring advanced functions, begin with a few simple ones. As with any hobby, you’ll encounter challenges along the way, but these hurdles are not insurmountable. With accessible and affordable beginner electronics tools like Arduino and CAD tools, the maker community welcomes new PCB designs and projects every day.

In addition to PCB manufacturing, Best Technology offers a full turnkey service, including parts procurement and assembly. Whether you’re working on prototypes or scaling up to mass production, Best Team provides a one-stop solution for seamless and hassle-free PCB assembly.

What is relay?

Relay refers to a transfer device in a circuit that controls the switch through the electromagnetic principle to achieve the purpose of automatic control. In power systems, relays can control the switch of circuits by detecting changes in parameters such as current and voltage to achieve protection and control of the system.

What is the use of relay in power system?

The basic working principle of a relay is to use the electromagnetic effect to control the on and off of mechanical contacts. When the coil with an iron core is energized, the coil current generates a magnetic field, which attracts the armature to move, thereby opening and closing the contacts.

Why would you need a relay?

The reasons for needing a relay mainly include safety isolation, remote control, timing or delay control, protection equipment, signal conversion, etc. ‌

1. ‌Safety isolation‌: When a low-voltage device (such as a microcontroller or sensor) is used to control a high-voltage device, the relay can act as an isolation layer to ensure safe operation.

2. ‌Remote control‌: When a device needs to be controlled at a longer distance or in a longer environment, the relay can transmit and amplify the signal to achieve remote control.

3. ‌Timing or delay control‌: When a device needs to be started or shut down at a specific time or after a delay, the relay can achieve timing or delay control.

4. ‌Protective device‌: As a protective device, the relay can prevent the device from being affected by faults such as overload and short circuit.

5. ‌Signal conversion‌: When one signal needs to be converted to another, the relay can perform signal conversion, such as converting an analog signal to a digital signal, or converting a wireless signal to a wired signal.

In addition, relays have the advantages of high reliability, long life, and low power consumption, which can improve the safety and stability of the equipment. Therefore, relays are indispensable and important components in automated control circuits, remote control, telemetry, communication, automatic control, mechatronics and power electronic equipment.

What is the main function of a relay?

The main functions of relays include amplifying signals, realizing remote control, protecting circuits, realizing logical control and improving system reliability and stability. ‌

‌Amplifying signals‌: Relays can convert weak control signals into stronger control signals. Because the contact capacity of relays is large, they can control loads with large currents and high voltages.

‌Remote control‌: Through input signals, relays can control the switch state of load equipment at a distance and realize the function of remote control.

‌Protect circuit‌: Relays have overload protection and short-circuit protection functions. When abnormal conditions occur in the circuit, such as overload, short circuit, etc., the relay can automatically cut off the power supply to prevent the fault from expanding and protect the safety of circuits and equipment.

‌Realize logical control‌: Relays can realize complex logical control through multiple sets of normally open and normally closed contacts, and are widely used in automation control systems, industrial control and other fields.

‌Improve the reliability and stability of the system ‌: Relays have high stability and reliability, which can reduce the failure rate in the system and improve the stability and reliability of the entire system.

In addition, relays also have isolation functions, which can protect the control circuit from the influence of the external environment and prevent electric shock accidents, which is very useful in some occasions with high safety requirements. ‌

What is the difference between a switch and a relay?

Switches and relays have significant differences in function, application, structure and usage scenarios. ‌

1. ‌Function and application‌

Switches are mainly used to connect and disconnect circuits, while relays are mainly used to control the on and off of circuits to achieve protection and control of circuits.

Switches can be regarded as a basic electrical component used to simply connect or disconnect circuits, while relays control the on and off of large currents by controlling small currents in the circuit to achieve remote control or automatic control‌.

2. ‌Structure and design‌

The contacts of switches may be small and are generally used to control small currents. In contrast, the contact switches of relays are larger and can be used to drive larger loads.

Contactors generally have arc extinguishing devices, while relays do not. This shows that relays and switches are different in design and application. Relays are more suitable for use in control circuits, while switches are used in main circuits.

3. Use scenarios

Switches are usually used to directly control the on and off of the main circuit, such as motor start-up, shutdown control, etc. Relays are more used in auxiliary circuits, such as the on and off of the control circuit, or after power is on or off, the on and off of the circuit is controlled by the change of position state, or the output node is given to other circuits.

Although switches and relays both play important roles in electrical systems, they have obvious differences in design, function and purpose. Switches are mainly used for simple circuit on and off operations, while relays are more used for the protection and control of control circuits, controlling the on and off of large currents by small currents, and realizing remote control or automatic control.

What is a relay vs fuse?

Fuses and relays play different roles in automotive circuits and have obvious differences. ‌

‌Fuse‌ is a non-resettable one-time thermal protection device, mainly used for overload protection. When a circuit fails or is abnormal, the current continues to increase. The increased current may damage some important components in the circuit, burn the circuit, or even cause a fire.

The function of the fuse is to disconnect the power supply of the electrical equipment on the vehicle when a short circuit or overload occurs, so as to protect other electrical appliances and lines.

The relay is an automatic control device. When the input (electricity, magnetism, sound, light, heat) reaches a certain value, the output will change in a jump-like manner. Relays are mainly used for overload protection. They control larger currents with smaller currents, and play the role of automatic adjustment, safety protection, and circuit conversion.

The working principle of the relay is to generate a magnetic field through the electromagnet coil, magnetize the iron core, attract it to the magnetic pole of the electromagnet, and then drive the contacts to close or open, so as to realize the switch control of the circuit.

In short, the function of the fuse is to cut off the current automatically when the current abnormally rises to a certain height and heats up, so as to protect the safe operation of the circuit; while the relay protects the circuit and electrical equipment from the influence of overload, short circuit and other faults by controlling the circuit, and at the same time improves the reliability of the circuit operation.

Conclusion:

As technology continues to evolve, relays become more sophisticated and in a world where the demand for power is increasing and the need for reliable power systems is more important than ever, relays will continue to play a vital role in ensuring our power systems remain safe, efficient, and more.

How to learn circuit diagram easily?

1. ‌Knowing electrical components‌: First, you need to understand common electrical components, such as AC contactors, push button switches, thermal relays, time relays, etc., and master their working principles and structures.

2. ‌Memorizing electrical symbols‌: Learn and memorize common electrical letters and graphic symbols, such as AC contactors (KM), intermediate relays (KA), etc.

3. ‌Basic theory learning‌: Have basic electrical basic knowledge, such as the relationship between the rotation direction of a three-phase asynchronous motor and the phase sequence of the power supply‌.

4. ‌Practical operation‌: If conditions permit, disassemble electrical components to familiarize yourself with their internal structure, or understand the internal structure and working principle through physical diagrams.

5. Practice step by step: Start with simple circuit diagrams and gradually try to analyze more complex circuit diagrams. Through continuous practice, you can gradually improve your ability to interpret circuit diagrams.

6. Use the principle of circuit simplification: Learn and apply the basic principles of circuit simplification, such as ignoring wire resistance, switch processing, etc.

7. Combine theory with practice: Apply theoretical knowledge to practice, for example, try to design your own circuit based on the learned electrical schematics, or design circuit diagrams according to actual needs.

Through the above steps and methods, you can learn and understand circuit diagrams more easily.

What are the 4 rules for drawing circuit diagrams?

The 4 rules for drawing circuit diagrams are:

1. Circuits or components should be arranged according to function and arranged in working order as much as possible. ‌

2. All electrical components should be represented by graphic symbols and text symbols that are unified by national standards. ‌

3. Different parts of the same electrical component (such as coils and their multiple contacts) are often not drawn together, but should be marked with the same text symbol.

4. In the circuit schematic, all contacts of the control appliance should be drawn in the “non-excitation” state.

These rules together ensure that the circuit diagram is clear, accurate and easy to understand, and provide an important reference for the design and maintenance of electronic equipment and systems.

How to get better at reading schematics?

Understand the basic composition and logic block diagram of the circuit: First, you need to understand the relationship between the various components in the schematic, such as power supply, reset, etc., and the connection relationship between the various devices on the motherboard.

Pay attention to details: When reading the schematic, you need to pay attention to details, such as the model of the components, the connection method, etc.

Do more exercises: Through a lot of reading and practice, you can become familiar with various circuit types and topics and gain more knowledge and experience from them.

Use relevant knowledge of analog circuits and circuit design: Having a deep understanding of the basic concepts and principles of analog circuits and circuit design can help better understand how the various parts in the schematic work together.

What are the components of common circuit schematics?

Power supply: The power supply provides electrical energy to the circuit in the form of voltage and current. Every functional electronic circuit requires a DC or AC power supply.

Switches: Switches can make or break connections in a circuit. They can also change the path that current flows.

Capacitors: Capacitors are passive electronic components that store electrical charge. There are two common types of capacitors: nonpolar capacitors and polar capacitors.

Diodes: A diode is a polarized device that allows current to flow in only one direction. Because it is polarized, it has a positive terminal (anode) and a negative terminal (cathode). The flat side of the triangle is the anode, and the line is the cathode.

Potentiometers and variable resistors: Both variable resistors and potentiometers have an arrow added to the standard resistor symbol. Variable resistors are still two-terminal devices, so the arrow just goes diagonally through the middle. Potentiometers are three-terminal devices, so the arrow becomes the third terminal (the wiper).

Resistors: The most basic circuit component and symbol, resistors on schematics are usually represented by a few jagged lines with two terminals extending outward. Schematics using international symbols may use a featureless rectangle instead of a wavy line.

What does a resistor do in a circuit?

Resistance (usually represented by “R”) is a physical quantity that indicates the magnitude of the resistance of a conductor to the current in physics.

The greater the resistance of a conductor, the greater the resistance of the conductor to the current. Different conductors generally have different resistances, which is a characteristic of the conductor itself. Moreover, the main functions of resistors in circuits include current shunting, current limiting, voltage division, biasing, filtering (used in combination with capacitors), impedance matching, and converting electrical energy into internal energy.

What is the simplest of all circuit diagrams?

The simplest of all circuit diagrams is the series circuit. ‌

The series circuit is one of the most basic circuit connection methods, consisting of components such as power supply, wires, switches, and electrical appliances. The characteristic of this circuit is that the path of current passing through each component is single, that is, the current flows out from the positive pole of the power supply, passes through each component and reaches the negative pole of the power supply.

The structure of the series circuit is simple and easy to understand and construct. Therefore, the series circuit is an important concept in the basic stage of circuit learning. In addition, the single path nature of the series circuit makes it the basis for understanding and analyzing complex circuits, laying the foundation for subsequent learning of more complex circuit structures such as parallel circuits and hybrid circuits.

Conclusion:

Circuit diagrams are an important tool in the field of electronics that provide a visual representation of circuits. These diagrams are essential for designing, troubleshooting, and understanding how electronic components are interconnected.

Whether you are a beginner or an experienced engineer, mastering the skill of reading circuit diagrams is the foundation for a successful career in electronics. It enables you to effectively design, troubleshoot, and understand electronic circuits. You can master this important skill by becoming familiar with common symbols, understanding circuit layouts, and practicing regularly.

What is a 3A masterpiece?

3A masterpieces usually refer to games with high development costs (a lot of money), long development cycles (a lot of time), and high resource consumption (a lot of resources). These games generally have high quality, large development teams, high development budgets, high visual and auditory effects, perfect combination of art and technology, and outstanding ease of use.

3A games represent the pinnacle of production quality, top technology and huge market influence. They are not only entertainment products, but also the perfect combination of technology, art and business. 3A games not only define the highest standards of the industry, but also become the golden benchmark in the minds of global players.

What are the classic 3A masterpieces?

1. Red Dead Redemption 2

The graphics of Red Dead Redemption 2 have reached a very high level in the past and even now. Its game graphics not only show us a real and shocking Western world, but also bring us a brand new experience.

In terms of image quality, it can be said to be top-level. From modeling to scenes and weapons, it is very realistic, and the detailed textures are also very rich, which makes the light in the entire game environment very beautiful, and it can also give players an immersive feeling.

2. Assassin’s Creed: Revolution

This is a high-quality action-adventure game. Players can experience the real style of Paris in the game, and can also choose different professions to unlock different abilities.

The overall picture effect of the game is very good, and the picture quality is also at a very high level. “Assassin’s Creed: Revolution” not only has a very good 3D visual experience, but also has an extremely powerful open world. This world is full of excitement and thrills, and it is a good game.

3. Call of Duty Series

The image quality of “Call of Duty” is relatively top-notch among 3A masterpieces. This is a high-quality 3D game, and the gameplay is very simple, that is, the player controls a special forces soldier to collect resources and ammunition on the battlefield, and use various types of weapons to defeat the enemy.

In addition, it contains not only single-player campaigns, but also cooperative campaigns, multiplayer cooperative campaigns and other types of campaign gameplay. “Call of Duty” also has a very rich map scene, a variety of terrains, weapons, ammunition and other resources and many other elements to provide players with richer content, more gameplay, etc.!

4. Forza Horizon 5

“Forza Horizon 5” is one of the best racing games you can experience at present. Although it has not changed much compared to the previous game, you can still experience the purest driving pleasure in hundreds of hours of game time.

The Mexico map in the game truly reproduces the beauty of various places, from endless deserts to winding wilderness and other terrains, every link allows you to feel its beauty and diversity. In the game, you will not only feel the excitement of racing, but also the shock from the vehicles and maps.

Why is Black Myth Wukong so popular?

For a long time, the production of 3A games has been basically controlled by game developers in Europe, the United States, Japan and other countries. In the field of domestic games, although many excellent works have been launched, before Black Myth Wukong, no single-player game has reached the international 3A game level, nor has it been so concerned by global media and players before it was launched.

“Chinese people do not have the strength to make 3A game masterpieces” “China does not have the soil for 3A games to grow”… For a long time, these statements are almost a factual description of the domestic game market and a helpless consensus of the majority of game players.

The aura of the Journey to the West theme, the desire for domestic 3A masterpieces, and even the hope for cultural inheritance are all placed on “Black Myth Wukong”. As Black Myth Wukong is about to “break out of the stone”, domestic 3A games will finally be subject to the heavy test of the market and players.

Judging from the current development results, the graphics of Black Myth Wukong have reached a very high level, and the unique classical scenes also make domestic 3A games more Chinese.

Industry insiders said that the reason why 3A games are regarded as the top works in the game industry is that they pursue excellence in content, plot and art, focus on inheritance and promotion of cultural values, and pursue continuous innovation in technology. An excellent 3A masterpiece not only represents the high level of a country in the game industry, but also symbolizes the country’s cultural soft power and technical strength.

The significance behind the explosion of Black Myth Wukong

First of all, the game fully reflects the excellent traditional Chinese culture in character design and scene design. The image of the character Sun Wukong not only retains the basic characteristics of the original work, but also innovates in details. The scene design is deeply drawn from China’s famous mountains, rivers and ancient buildings.

In addition, the game uses the world’s leading “Unreal 5” development engine, which has achieved movie-level picture quality, which is also an important factor in attracting global players. Industry insiders believe that the popularity of Black Myth Wukong is the inevitable result of cultural confidence and a new expression of the vigorous vitality of traditional culture. ‌

The success of Black Myth Wukong has had a profound impact on the Chinese game industry. Within just five minutes of the pre-sale opening, all pre-sale products were sold out, becoming the most watched product in the game industry this year. This game not only meets the expectations of players for domestic masterpieces, but also gives the entire industry great confidence and inspiration. Industry insiders believe that the success of “Black Myth Wukong” will inspire more Chinese game developers to pursue high-quality games and promote the progress of the domestic game industry.

The success of Black Myth Wukong is not only the success of a game product, but also the success of Chinese cultural output. The character design, scene design and props in the game reflect Chinese culture, and these elements have attracted widespread attention worldwide.

The explosion of the game proves that Chinese games have the ability to break the long-term monopoly of European and American companies in the field of high-end games, and open up a new channel for the internationalization of Chinese games. The cultural output of this game is of great significance. It not only shows the charm of Chinese traditional culture, but also provides a new window for the world to understand Chinese culture.

Why were there no 3A games in China before this?

1. One of the reasons why it is difficult to have 3A games in China is that compared with foreign countries, China lacks such a large R&D team and a long R&D cycle.

2. The domestic game market is mainly occupied by mobile games and web games, which have a short development cycle and a fast return on investment, so they are more favored by game companies.

3. Domestic players have a relatively low acceptance of 3A masterpieces, which makes 3A games a relatively niche product in the domestic market.

4. Domestic hardware equipment is relatively insufficient, such as high-end computers are not popular, which also limits the popularity of 3A games in the domestic market.

5. Domestic game companies are technically capable of developing 3A games, but in the current environment, the risks are high and the returns are not stable.

With the improvement of domestic hardware level and the increase in players’ acceptance of 3A games, I believe that more 3A games will appear in the domestic market in the future.

Conclusion:

The response to the launch of Black Myth Wukong has given us a good start. It is undoubtedly very good news for all partners who love games and our Chinese culture. We can believe that this is the beginning of our domestic 3A masterpiece games. Next, better and higher-quality works will emerge like mushrooms after rain. Let us look forward to it together!

What is the full form of MCPCB

mcpcb full form is metal core printed circuit board
Attach the original printed circuit board to another metal with better heat conduction effect to improve the heat dissipation at the circuit board level. Metal-based PCBs usually consist of three layers: circuit layer (copper foil layer), thermal conductive insulation layer and metal base layer.

What is MCPCB

Metal Core PCB is a printed circuit board whose substrate uses metal material as a support layer or heat dissipation layer, usually an aluminum substrate or a copper substrate. It has excellent electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.
Metal Core PCB is usually composed of a metal substrate, an adhesive and copper foil. It is characterized by high reliability, good heat dissipation, and is suitable for high-speed transmission and high-frequency circuits.

What is MCPCB

What is mcpcb led

Metal-based LED lamps are LED lighting fixtures that use metal-based circuit boards (MCPCBs) as light source boards. This type of circuit board, called aluminum-based copper-clad circuit boards (ALPCBs), has excellent thermal conductivity and high cost-effectiveness, and has rapidly become the first choice for light source boards of LED lighting fixtures since 2007. The basic structure of a metal-based circuit board includes a conductive layer (copper foil layer), an insulating heat dissipation layer, and a metal base layer (mostly aluminum or copper), which together provide good electrical insulation and heat dissipation.

In LED lamps, it can conduct heat quickly, which is very effective in dealing with the problem of high heat generation of LEDs. Aluminum substrates also support surface mount technology (SMT), which effectively handles heat diffusion in circuit design solutions, ensuring that LED lamps have better performance and longer service life

What is the thermal conductivity of Mcpcb?

The thermal conductivity of MCPCB ranges from 1.0-4W/mK, while high-performance MCPCB can reach 230W/mK.

The thermal conductivity of MCPCB depends on its design and the materials used. ‌Generally speaking, the thermal conductivity of MCPCB is between 1.0-4W/mK, which can already meet the heat dissipation needs of most electronic devices. ‌However, for applications that require higher thermal conductivity, MCPCBs with thermal conductivity as high as 230W/mK have appeared on the market. This high-performance MCPCB uses special materials and designs to provide better heat dissipation. ‌

MCPCB material

Aluminum substrate: Aluminum substrate is a metal-based copper-clad plate with good thermal conductivity and electrical insulation properties. It is usually composed of an aluminum alloy base layer and an insulating dielectric layer, and is suitable for electronic devices that require efficient heat dissipation, such as LED lighting and power supplies. Aluminum substrates can not only effectively conduct heat from the circuit board to the heat sink, but also have good mechanical strength and electromagnetic shielding effects.
Copper substrate: Copper substrates are known for their excellent electrical conductivity and can provide low-resistance paths, which helps improve circuit performance. Copper’s thermal expansion coefficient is similar to that of many semiconductor materials, which helps reduce thermal stress and increase component reliability.
Tungsten substrate: Tungsten substrate has good high-temperature stability and is suitable for electronic devices in high-temperature environments. Tungsten has a low thermal expansion coefficient, which helps maintain the dimensional stability of components at different temperatures, and is suitable for high-performance electronic devices that require compact designs.
Nickel substrate: Nickel substrate has good magnetic properties and is suitable for the application of magnetic components. Nickel substrates exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and mechanical strength under certain environments, and are suitable for electronic devices in some special environments. ‌
Stainless steel substrate: Stainless steel substrate is well-known for its excellent corrosion resistance and is suitable for electronic devices in some special environments. The durability and stability of stainless steel substrate make it an ideal choice for some harsh environments.

Advantages of MCPCB

High thermal conductivity: The thermal conductivity of metal substrate PCB is much better than that of traditional plastic substrates such as FR4. It can effectively conduct the heat generated by components, reduce the operating temperature of components, and improve the reliability and life of circuit boards.
Good thermal stability: Metal substrate PCB can maintain good dimensional stability and electrical performance in high temperature environments, and is suitable for high temperature working environments.
High strength and rigidity: Metal substrate PCB has high mechanical strength and rigidity, is not easy to deform and break, and can withstand large external forces and vibrations.
Excellent electrical insulation performance: Through the special insulation layer design, good electrical insulation performance is guaranteed to avoid electrical short circuits between components.
Low impedance: The conductive layer of metal substrate PCB is made of metal material, which has low impedance, which is conducive to signal transmission and processing.
Good processability: Metal substrate PCB can be processed by conventional mechanical processing methods such as drilling and cutting, which is convenient for the production of circuit boards with complex shapes and sizes. ‌
Widely used: Aluminum substrates are widely used in audio equipment, computers, automobiles, lamps and lighting. Copper substrates are suitable for high-frequency circuits and areas with large changes in high and low temperatures.

Application of MCPCB

Automotive electronics: The stability and reliability of metal-based PCBs make them an ideal choice in the automotive electronics field, ensuring the stable operation of automotive electronic systems.
Medical devices: In medical devices, the high reliability and good electromagnetic compatibility of metal-based PCBs are essential to ensure the accuracy and safety of medical equipment.
Industrial automation: Industrial automation equipment has high requirements for reliability and performance. The mechanical strength and high thermal conductivity of metal-based PCBs make them the preferred choice in the field of industrial automation.
Communication base stations and radar systems: Communication base stations and radar systems need to process a large amount of data transmission and high-frequency signals. The excellent electrical properties and high-frequency characteristics of metal-based PCBs meet the needs of these applications.
Antennas and filters: In the field of wireless communications, the electromagnetic shielding performance and stability of metal-based PCBs are essential to improving communication quality and reducing electromagnetic interference.

How to make MCPCB

The process flow of metal-based PCB includes inner-layer circuit production, lamination, drilling, hole metallization, outer-layer dry film, outer-layer circuit, silk-screen printing, surface processing and post-processing. ‌

Inner-layer circuit production: This step is mainly to produce the inner-layer circuit of the PCB circuit board, including cutting, pretreatment, lamination, exposure, DE (development, etching, film removal) and other processes, the purpose is to produce the inner-layer circuit of the PCB circuit board. ‌
Lamination: Press the copper foil, prepreg and brown-treated inner-layer circuit board into a multi-layer board. This step is to press multiple inner-layer boards into one board. ‌
Drilling: Use a drilling machine to drill holes of different diameters and sizes on the board according to customer requirements, so that the holes between the boards are convenient for subsequent processing of plug-ins, and can also help the board dissipate heat. ‌
Hole metallization: Metallizing the non-conductor part on the hole wall can make the subsequent electroplating process more convenient. ‌This step is to plate copper in the hole so that the circuits on each layer of the board are conductive. ‌
Outer layer dry film: The required circuit is exposed on the dry film through graphic transfer technology, in order to facilitate the subsequent process to make the circuit. ‌
Outer layer circuit: The purpose is to plate the copper thickness to the thickness required by the customer and complete the circuit shape required by the customer. ‌
Silk screen printing: The protective layer of the outer layer circuit is used to ensure the insulation, protective plate, and solder mask of the PCB. ‌
Surface processing: Complete the processing according to the customer’s requirements, and test it to ensure the final quality audit. ‌Both THT and SMT parts are installed on the PCB using machinery and equipment. ‌
Post-processing: Complete the processing according to the customer’s requirements, and test it to ensure the final quality audit.

Metal PCB Manufacturers

Welcome to our website! With over 18 years of experience in designing and manufacturing MCPCBs, we take pride in being your one-stop supplier. Our original factory spans 30,000㎡, and with a team of 229+ staff and advanced equipment, we achieve a daily peak production of up to 100k pieces.

As a trusted supplier, we hold certifications including UL, ISO13485, ISO9001, IATF16949 and SGS, enabling us to meet the high standards of clients across Europe, America, Israel, India, and so on. Our success is built on core values such as honesty, integrity, teamwork, appreciation, self-confidence, pragmatism, continuous learning, self-discipline, and fostering win-win cooperation. Experience reliability, efficiency, and quality with us. Explore our services and let us help you fulfill your MCPCB needs.

Printed circuit board assembly metal core

The preparation processes of metal matrix composite materials include contact reaction method (CR method), mixed salt reaction method (LSM method), hot pressing preparation process, stirring casting method, semi-solid composite casting method, impregnation solidification method (MI technology) and centrifugal casting method.

Contact reaction method (CR method) is to mix the matrix element or alloy powder and the strengthening element or alloy powder in a certain proportion, cold press into a prefabricated block with a certain density, and then immerse it in an alloy melt at a certain temperature. After the reaction, a fine strengthening phase is generated in the alloy melt, and after stirring and standing, it can be cast into various castings. This method has been used to prepare a variety of metal matrix composite materials, such as Al-based, Mg-based, Cu-based, Ti-based, Fe-based, Ni-based composite materials, showing excellent mechanical properties. ‌
The mixed salt reaction method (LSM method) is to mix salts containing Ti and B, such as KBF4 and K2TiF6, and add them to high-temperature metal melt. The Ti and B in the salt are reduced by the metal under high temperature and react in the melt to form a reinforcing phase. After slag removal, it can be cast to obtain a reinforced metal matrix composite material. ‌
The hot pressing preparation process is a solid phase composite process for preparing metal matrix composite materials by diffusion bonding continuous fibers and matrix alloys at a certain heating temperature and pressure.
The stirring casting method is to add ceramic particles to the molten metal, and after uniform stirring, pour it into the mold to obtain products or secondary processing blanks. This method is easy to achieve mass production and has low cost, but the main disadvantage is that the combination of matrix metal and reinforcing particles is limited. ‌
The semi-solid composite casting method is developed from the semi-solid casting method. Through strong stirring, the dendrite network skeleton is broken and the dispersed granular structure is retained, which improves wettability and promotes interface bonding. ‌
The impregnation solidification method (MI technology) is a method of impregnating a pre-prepared reinforcement phase formed body with a high porosity into a molten matrix metal, allowing the matrix metal to penetrate the preform and then solidify it to prepare a composite material. ‌
The centrifugal casting method is widely used in the casting of hollow parts. It forms a bimetallic layered composite material through a two-step casting method. This method is simple and has the advantages of low cost and high density of the casting, but the interface quality is not easy to control.

PCB copper foil thickness standard

Common international PCB thicknesses are: 35um, 50um, and 70um.
The copper foil (copper cladding) thickness of general single-sided and double-sided PCBs is about 35um (1.4mil), and the other specifications are 50um and 70um.
The surface thickness of multilayer boards is generally 35um=1oz (1.4mil), and the inner layer is 17.5um (0.7mil).

The relationship between the line width, copper thickness and current passing through the PCB board

1 foot = 12 inches
1 inch = 1000 mil
1mil = 25.4um
1mil = 1000uin mil is sometimes called inch
1um = 40uin (some companies call microinches “microinches”, which are actually microinches)
1OZ = 28.35 grams per square foot = 35 microns

PCB copper thickness current comparison table

Copper foil width Copper foil thickness
70um 50um 35um
2.50mm 6.00A 5.10A 4.50A
2.00mm 5.10A 4.30A 4.00A
1.50mm 4.20A 3.50A 3.20A
1.20mm 3.60A 3.00A 2.70A
1.00mm 3.20A 2.60A 2.30A
0.80mm 2.80A 2.40A 2.00A
0.60mm 2.30A 1.90A 1.60A
0.50mm 2.00A 1.70A 1.35A
0.40mm 1.70A 1.35A 1.10A
0.30mm 1.30A 1.10A 0.80A
0.20mm 0.90A 0.70A 0.55A
0.15mm 0.70A 0.50A 0.20A

PCB copper content

The copper content of PCB copper foil is generally 90% and 88%.

Copper foil is made of copper and a certain proportion of other metals. There are two common specifications of copper foil, namely 90% and 88% copper content. The size of these two specifications of copper foil is 16*16cm, which is widely used in various occasions where copper foil is needed, including PCB manufacturing. In PCB manufacturing, copper foil is the basic material of the circuit board, and its thickness and copper content have an important influence on the electrical performance and durability of the circuit board. The thickness of copper foil is usually expressed in OZ (ounces). The standard PCB copper thickness range is 1/4OZ-6OZ. The specific thickness includes 1OZ, 2OZ, 3OZ, 4OZ, 5OZ, 6OZ, which correspond to different copper thickness sizes, such as 35um, 70um, 105um, 140um, 175um, 210um. In practical applications, the commonly used copper thicknesses are 1OZ, 2OZ, 3OZ, 4OZ, etc. These copper thicknesses can meet the needs of most electronic products.

Why is the copper foil on the surface of PCB copper+plating?

The copper foil on the surface of the PCB adopts the copper+plating method, mainly because this treatment method can provide better conductivity and protection circuit. ‌Copper foil is the conductor of PCB, and its basic material is copper, while plating (plating) is a layer of metal added on the basis of copper foil by electroplating or other methods, usually tin, gold or other alloys, to provide additional protection and enhance electrical performance. ‌The reasons and advantages of this treatment method are as follows: ‌

Conductivity: Copper has good conductivity and is an ideal medium for the flow of electrons. ‌In PCB, copper foil is used as a conductive layer to connect various electronic components and ensure smooth transmission of current. ‌
Protective circuit: By adding plating, such as tin or gold, to the copper foil, additional protection can be provided to prevent the copper foil from being oxidized or corroded, thereby protecting the long-term stability and reliability of the circuit board. ‌
Enhanced electrical performance: Plating not only prevents copper foil from being oxidized, but also enhances electrical performance by selecting appropriate plating materials, such as using gold plating to improve the corrosion resistance and conductivity of the circuit board. ‌
Cost considerations: Although gold is an expensive metal, the use of gold plating in certain key signal lines or high-density interconnection areas can significantly improve the performance and reliability of the circuit board, especially in reducing signal loss and interference in high-frequency signal transmission.

What Does HASL Stand For?

HASL stands for Hot Air Solder Leveling. It is a surface finish process used in PCB manufacturing. The term describes the method where solder is applied to the copper pads on a PCB and then leveled using hot air to ensure even coating. HASL is widely used because of its simplicity and effectiveness in providing a reliable solderable surface.

What Is HASL in PCB?

In PCB manufacturing, HASL is a surface finish applied to the exposed copper pads to protect them from oxidation and to provide a good surface for soldering components. The HASL process involves dipping the PCB into molten solder, typically composed of a lead-free alloy, and then using hot air to remove excess solder, ensuring a smooth and even layer. This finish is particularly valued for its excellent solderability and cost-effectiveness.

HASL Lead Free vs ENIG: Understanding Their Differences

Characteristics of Hot Air Solder Leveling

Hot Air Solder Leveling is a widely used surface finish in PCB manufacturing due to its unique set of characteristics that make it suitable for various applications. Below are the key attributes that define HASL:

1. HASL provides one of the most solderable surfaces available for PCB assembly. The molten solder applied during the HASL process creates a coating that is highly receptive to soldering, making it easy to attach components.

2. Compared to other surface finishes like ENIG or OSP, HASL is generally more affordable.

3. The solder coating provided by HASL serves as a protective layer for the copper pads on the PCB. This layer helps prevent oxidation and corrosion.

4. Variability in coating thickness. The hot air leveling process can result in uneven distribution of solder, leading to variations in thickness across the PCB. While this might be a drawback for designs requiring fine-pitch components or precise tolerances, it is often acceptable in less demanding applications where slight variations are not critical.

5. Thermal resistance. The solder layer provided by HASL can withstand multiple thermal cycles during the PCB assembly process, such as during solder reflow.

6. The HASL process creates a strong bond between the solder and the underlying copper pads.

What Is the HASL Method?

The HASL coating process is a critical step in PCB manufacturing, designed to protect the exposed copper pads and good solderability during the assembly of electronic components. The process is under several steps, each carefully controlled to achieve a uniform and reliable coating. Here’s a detailed look at how HASL is applied to a PCB:

1. Pre-Cleaning the PCB

The HASL process begins with thoroughly cleaning the PCB to remove any contaminants such as oxidation, oils, or residues from previous manufacturing steps. This is typically done using a combination of chemical cleaning agents and mechanical scrubbing.

2. Flux Application

After cleaning, a layer of flux is applied to the PCB. Flux is a chemical agent that serves multiple purposes: it removes any remaining oxidation from the copper pads, improves the wetting of the solder, and helps the solder adhere more effectively to the copper. The type of flux used can vary, but it must be compatible with the solder alloy to ensure a reliable coating.

3. Solder Bath Dipping

The PCB is then dipped into a bath of molten solder. For lead-free HASL, the solder typically consists of a tin-silver-copper (SAC) alloy, which is heated to a temperature between 240°C and 260°C (464°F to 500°F). The molten solder covers the entire surface of the PCB, including the copper pads and through-holes, forming a protective layer.

4. Hot Air Leveling

Once the PCB is removed from the solder bath, it immediately undergoes the leveling process. The board is passed through a pair of hot air knives positioned on either side. These knives blow high-pressure, heated air across the surface of the PCB, removing any excess solder and ensuring a uniform layer remains on the pads.

5. Cooling

After leveling, the PCB is cooled to solidify the solder coating. This cooling is typically done using an air or water-based cooling system, depending on the specific requirements of the manufacturing process. Rapid cooling can sometimes introduce stresses into the solder layer, so the cooling rate must be carefully controlled to avoid defects like cracking or warping.

6. Post-Process Cleaning

In some cases, the PCB may undergo a final cleaning step to remove any flux residues or other contaminants that might remain after the HASL process. And then testing and inspection.

What Is the Difference Between HASL and ENIG Finish?

While both HASL and ENIG are popular PCB surface finishes, they differ significantly in their composition, application, and performance:

Characteristic	HASL	ENIG
Cost	Lower cost, suitable for budget-sensitive projects	Higher cost, but justifiable for high-reliability needs
Solderability	Excellent, but may vary with coating thickness	Consistent, even for fine-pitch components
Durability	Reasonable, but less effective in harsh environments	Superior, with excellent corrosion resistance
Thermal Performance	Good, but uneven surface might cause issues	Excellent, with consistent performance in high-heat scenarios
Best Suited For	General-purpose electronics, consumer products	High-reliability applications, aerospace, medical, and high-density PCBs
Surface Flatness	May have uneven surface, less ideal for fine-pitch components	Extremely flat surface, ideal for precise component placement
Environmental Impact	Lead-free HASL is environmentally safer, but traditional HASL uses lead which is harmful	Environmentally friendly, as it doesn’t use lead or other harmful materials
Shelf Life	Shorter shelf life due to potential oxidation over time	Longer shelf life due to gold’s resistance to oxidation
Reworkability	Easier to rework due to the nature of solder	More challenging to rework due to hard nickel layer

HAL vs. HASL

HAL (Hot Air Leveling) and HASL (Hot Air Solder Leveling) are terms often used interchangeably, but they can refer to slightly different processes. HAL is a broader term that encompasses any method of leveling solder using hot air. In contrast, HASL specifically refers to using solder to coat the PCB’s surface. Essentially, all HASL processes are HAL, but not all HAL processes are HASL.

What Is the Composition of HASL?

At present, the solder of lead-free solder alloy hot air leveling is mainly Sn-Cu-Ni+Ge (germanium) or Sn-Cu-Ni+Co (cobalt). The components of Sn-Cu-Ni+Ge (Germanium) in the OPA2544T are Sn, 0.7% Cu, 0.05% Ni and Ge with a nominal content of 65×10-6. Germanium can not only prevent the growth of oxides, but also prevent the solder joints on the PCB pad coating surface from yellowing and tarnishing during the HASL process and subsequent reflow welding and wave soldering processes. In addition, germanium can also inhibit the formation of slag in lead-free wave soldering.

The biggest problem in the lead-free HASL process is the problem of sinking copper in the tin tank during the use of the equipment.

The typical operating temperature range of the HASL process is 265 to 275 ° C, and this temperature range can be used for almost all actual manufactured laminates. At this temperature, even CEM1, there is no problem of delamination and degradation. However, the actual process temperature increases with the increase of copper composition in the tin tank. When the copper composition is 0.3% higher than the optimal value of 1.2%, then the welding temperature must be increased to 285 ° C, which is not the laminate can withstand. Although a copper-free solder alloy can be added to reduce the copper content in the tin tank, it is difficult to control the proportion.

The so-called “freeze-drying” method can also be used. When the tin lead eutectic solder (63Sn-37Pb) temperature drops to about 190℃, the melting tin copper intermetallic compound (Cri6Sn5) will be “freeze-dried”. In high-density lead solders, Cu6Sn5 floats on the surface of the molten solder and can be skimmed out using a slotted spoon. However, in lead-free solder, Ct16SIl5 is denser than lead-free solder, and CLJ6Sn5 will settle to the bottom of the tin tank. There is a mechanism to reduce the temperature to about 235 ° C (about 8 ° C higher than the melting point temperature), the tin tank shut down for at least two hours, preferably all night, at this time, most of the alloy is still in a molten state, you can design special tools, from the bottom of the tin tank out of the precipitation of Cr16Sn5, but it is still very difficult.

What Is the Minimum Pitch for HASL?

The minimum pitch for HASL refers to the smallest distance between two adjacent pads that can be reliably soldered using the HASL process. Due to the nature of the hot air leveling process, which can create uneven surfaces, HASL is generally not recommended for very fine-pitch components. The minimum pitch is typically around 0.65mm, but it can vary depending on the specific requirements and the quality of the HASL process used.

Does HASL Oxidize?

One of the main concerns with any PCB finish is oxidation, which can affect solderability and reliability. While HASL provides a protective solder layer that helps prevent oxidation, it is not entirely immune. Over time, especially in harsh environments, the solder can oxidize, leading to potential issues during assembly. However, proper storage and handling can minimize this risk, making HASL a reliable choice for many applications.

How Thick Is the HASL Coating?

The thickness of the HASL coating can vary depending on the process parameters and the type of solder used. Typically, the thickness ranges from 1 to 25 microns. This variability can be a drawback for applications requiring precise and consistent thickness, especially for fine-pitch components. However, for many general-purpose applications, the thickness provided by HASL is more than sufficient.

What Is the Black Pad Syndrome?

Black pad syndrome is a phenomenon associated with the ENIG finish, not HASL. It occurs when there is an issue with the nickel layer during the ENIG process, leading to poor solder joints and potential failures. The term “black pad” refers to the appearance of the affected nickel layer, which turns black due to oxidation and contamination. While this issue is unrelated to HASL, it’s important to note that HASL does not suffer from black pad syndrome, making it a more straightforward and reliable finish in this regard.

When choosing between lead-free HASL and ENIG surface finishes for your PCB, it’s important to consider the specific needs of your project. For reliable and high-quality PCB manufacturer, consider working with Best Technology, a leader in the field. With our expertise and advanced technology, we ensure that your PCBs meet the highest standards of quality and performance. Whether you choose HASL or ENIG, we have the experience and capability to deliver the best results for your project.

What is a Ceramic PCB?

Ceramic PCB or ceramic circuit board is a kind of printed circuit board using ceramic material as substrate. Different from the traditional PCB which often uses FR4 and other materials, ceramic PCB has better heat dissipation and electrical insulation. These characteristics make ceramic PCB an ideal choice for high-power applications such as LED lighting, power electronics and automotive electronics.

Commonly used ceramic materials for ceramic PCB generally include alumina (Al2O3), aluminum nitride (AlN) and silicon carbide (SiC). These materials can provide the necessary thermal conductivity and mechanical strength for ceramic PCB applications, and ensure that the circuit board can withstand high temperature and harsh working conditions.

One of the main advantages of ceramic circuit boards is that they can handle higher power load without overheating risk, which significantly improves the service life of ceramic PCB. At the same time, the low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) in ceramic materials also reduces the risk of thermal stress and further improves the durability of ceramic PCB.

How to Make Ceramic PCB?

Due to the unique properties of ceramic materials, the process of manufacturing ceramic PCB is more complicated than traditional PCB. The manufacturing process usually involves several key steps:

Firstly, the first step is to select the appropriate ceramic materials according to the specific requirements of the circuit board.

The second step is to press and sinter the ceramic powder into the required shape and thickness after selecting the material. The sintering process involves heating the material to a high temperature to fuse the particles together, thus forming a dense and solid substrate.

The third step is to deposit a layer of metal (usually copper or gold) on the surface after the substrate is formed, then apply photoresist material to the metal layer, and use ultraviolet rays to expose the required circuit pattern, and then etch away the exposed area, leaving the circuit pattern.

Finally, after the circuit is formed, the circuit board should go through a finishing process to improve its performance and durability. Finally, the quality of the finished circuit board should be checked to ensure that it meets all the required specifications.

What is Ceramic PCB? Its Types and Manufacturing Process

This process can make ceramic PCB highly reliable and can work normally under extreme conditions.

How Many Layers in Ceramic PCB?

Ceramic PCB can be made of multiple layers like traditional PCB, and its number of layers depends on the complexity of the circuit and the application requirements.

Single-layer ceramic PCB is composed of a single-layer ceramic material and a metal circuit at the top, which is usually used for heat dissipation applications.

Multilayer ceramic PCB is more complex, consisting of multilayer ceramic materials and metal circuits, which are stacked together and interconnected by vias. The extra layer allows more complex circuit design, enabling the circuit board to handle more signals and power for applications requiring higher functions.

The number of layers in ceramic PCB can range from one to several. Each additional layer will increase the complexity and cost of the circuit board, but it will also increase its function and performance, depending on its application scenario.

How Thick is Gold Conductor Printed on the Ceramic PCB?

The thickness of gold conductor on ceramic PCB is an important factor affecting the performance and durability of circuit board. The thickness of gold conductor depends on the application and required performance characteristics, and is usually in the range of 0.5 micron to 10 micron. Of course, a thicker gold layer can also be provided, which also brings better conductivity and more stable performance, especially in high-power applications, which also brings higher costs.

In high frequency applications, the thicker gold layer can reduce the signal loss, improve the overall performance of the circuit, and also better prevent wear and prolong the service life of PCB.

Considering the specific requirements of the application, the exact thickness of the gold conductor has been determined in the design stage. Our advanced manufacturing technology enables us to accurately control the thickness of the gold conductor and ensure that each circuit board meets the required specifications.

What is the Ceramic insulator on the Circuit Board Used For?

Ceramic insulators are generally used to electrically insulate different components and conductive paths on a circuit board, prevent short circuits and ensure that the circuit operates as expected. It plays a vital role in the performance and reliability of ceramic circuit boards.

Even a small amount of current leakage will cause serious problems. Ceramic materials of insulators provide excellent electrical insulation performance, which means that they can withstand high voltage without allowing current to pass through. In addition to electrical insulation, ceramic insulators also have thermal insulation properties, which can help control the heat generated by components on the circuit board.

Ceramic insulators are usually placed between metal conductors on the circuit board, which allows multiple conductive paths to be placed closely together without the risk of short circuit because they are electrically insulated from each other.

Generally speaking, ceramic insulator is a key component of ceramic PCB, which helps to improve its performance and reliability.

What equipment does BEST Technology have?

We use advanced machines at every step of the production process, from substrate molding to circuit molding and surface treatment, to ensure the highest quality ceramic PCB.

For substrate forming, we have high-precision press and sintering furnace, which can produce dense and uniform ceramic substrates.

Our metallization process is also supported by advanced sputtering and chemical vapor deposition equipment to ensure that a consistent high-quality metal layer can be formed on the substrate.

At the same time, we also have cutting-edge lithography equipment for circuit formation, which enables us to create complex and accurate circuit patterns on the circuit board.

In addition to our advanced equipment, our team of technicians and engineers have rich experience in the production of ceramic printed circuit boards. Combined with our most advanced equipment, we can provide high-quality products that meet the most demanding requirements.

Ceramic PCB has a series of advantages, from materials to technology, each of which provides corresponding advantages, including excellent thermal management, electrical insulation and durability, making them an ideal choice for high power and high temperature applications. BEST Technology has advanced manufacturing technology, first-class equipment and commitment to quality, which can ensure that our ceramic PCB achieves the highest performance and the best quality. Whether you need a single-layer board or a complex multi-layer design, we have the expertise and equipment to provide products that meet your needs.

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What Does HASL Stand For?

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Characteristics of Hot Air Solder Leveling

What Is the HASL Method?

What Is the Difference Between HASL and ENIG Finish?

HAL vs. HASL

What Is the Composition of HASL?

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What is a Ceramic PCB?

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What equipment does BEST Technology have?

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