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Tuesday, September 16th, 2025

High speed board design plays a crucial role in modern electronics, from communication devices to automotive systems. This blog highlights the contents about the meaning, significance, and key aspects of high speed board design, critical performance factors, practical improvement strategies, software tools, cost-quality balance, and manufacturing considerations.

Are you struggling with these common pain points?

Long design schedule and varying difficulty of design?
The prominent problem of signal completeness?
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Increased mismatch of design tool and process?
Great cost of inspection and verification?

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Boost the design process and tools.
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Elevate layout and Routing Strategies.

As a high speed PCB manufacturer, Best Technology provides services varying from high speed board design guidelines, prototyping, mass production, PCBA, and box build. Our product category is not just high speed boards, but also high frequency laminate PCB boards, HDI PCBs, thermally conductive PCBs, robotic aluminum substrate PCBs, and others. These products are best-selling in America, Australia, Israel, Germany, and other countries in the first half of 2025. Warm welcome to send us any technical project to proceed at sales@bestpcbs.com, and we are looking forward to having a close business interaction with you.

What is a High Speed Board Design?

High speed board design refers to PCB layouts intended for circuits with signal frequencies exceeding 100 MHz or signal propagation times below 1 nanosecond (ns). The core objective is to ensure signal integrity (SI), power integrity (PI), and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Compared to standard PCB design, high-speed design must address more complex signal transmission issues, such as reflections, crosstalk, and delays. Therefore, it relies on specialized routing strategies, impedance control, and differential pair techniques.

Fundamental Concepts

Signal Integrity
High-speed PCBs require impedance matching (for example, maintaining transmission line impedance at 50 Ω or 100 Ω), avoiding right-angle traces, and using length-matched routing to minimize signal distortion. In contrast, standard PCBs usually operate at lower speeds and rarely require such strict signal integrity considerations.

Material Selection
High-speed PCBs use substrates with low dielectric constant (Dk) and low dielectric loss factor (Df), such as PTFE or Rogers materials, to reduce signal attenuation. Standard PCBs, on the other hand, typically use more cost-effective FR-4 materials.

Power and Thermal Management
High-speed designs require optimized power plane layouts and additional decoupling capacitors to suppress voltage fluctuations. Since high-speed operation generates more heat, thermal management must be enhanced through heat-spreading layers or thermally conductive materials like thermal adhesives.

Key Differences from Standard PCBs

Design Complexity: High-speed PCBs need signal integrity simulation and impedance control, while standard PCBs only require basic electrical connectivity.
Cost: High-speed PCBs are significantly more expensive due to advanced materials, processes (such as blind/buried vias), and rigorous testing requirements.
Applications: High-speed PCBs are used in high-frequency fields such as communications and radar, whereas standard PCBs are mainly applied in low-speed consumer electronics.

From the comparison above, it is clear that high-speed PCB design is crucial for achieving high performance in electronic devices. Its technical requirements and costs are considerably higher than those for standard PCB design.

Why High Speed Board Design Matters in Modern Electronics?

1. Safeguarding Signal Integrity for Greater System Reliability

High-speed signals such as 5G, SerDes, and DDR5 are easily affected by reflection, crosstalk, and delay during transmission, which may lead to bit errors or even system crashes. Standard PCB materials tend to attenuate high-frequency harmonics more severely, meaning signals cannot “travel far.” It is similar to a fuel-hungry car that runs out of gas before reaching its destination. High-speed materials, with lower Df values, minimize signal loss and maintain higher bandwidth and margin over the same trace length. With impedance matching, proper termination, and strict length control of differential pairs (error <5mil), signal integrity is preserved and system stability is greatly improved.

To make this concept more intuitive, a simple simulation circuit is provided to compare the signal performance of a 10-inch trace on Standard Loss material versus Very Low Loss material. By applying sine waves of different frequencies, the impact of dielectric loss on signal transmission becomes clear.

10-inch trace on Standard Loss material

10-inch trace on Very Low Loss material

1GHz sine wave comparison

5GHz sine wave comparison

25GHz sine wave comparison

From the results, it is evident that standard materials show much greater attenuation at higher frequencies. At 25GHz, the waveform is almost completely degraded, while low-loss materials retain higher amplitude and sharper edges. Since digital signals are composed of multiple frequency harmonics, the attenuation of high-frequency components leads to edge degradation, reduced amplitude, and lower bandwidth. High-speed laminates reduce transmission loss per unit length, enabling longer traces under the same loss requirement or higher bandwidth under the same trace length.

2. Meeting the Growing Demand for High Frequency and High Density

Modern applications such as millimeter-wave radar, satellite links, and AI processors require PCBs to support GHz-level or even higher frequencies. High-density routing demands finer line width (as small as 3mil) and tighter spacing, along with low-loss materials such as Rogers 4350B to minimize attenuation. Standard laminates act like “gas guzzlers” that cannot sustain long traces, while ultra-low-loss materials function like “fuel-efficient cars,” supporting longer interconnects and higher frequencies. With buried and blind vias, multi-layer interconnections are also made more compact, enabling complex system integration in a limited footprint.

3. Enhancing Power Delivery and Thermal Management

High-speed devices consume more power and generate more heat. Without proper optimization, signals may jitter, and systems may fail. High-speed PCBs focus on robust PDN (Power Distribution Network) design, often using multi-layer stack-ups such as GND-PWR-GND structures combined with decoupling capacitors (10–100nF per chip) to reduce noise. Thicker copper (2oz) and dense thermal vias (0.3mm) improve heat dissipation. Compared to a car that stalls mid-way due to inefficiency, high-speed designs are like performance vehicles—running efficiently, completing the full journey, and maintaining stability.

4. Reducing EMI Risks and Ensuring Regulatory Compliance

High-speed signals radiate more strongly due to their higher frequencies, making them prone to EMI issues. Without proper control, not only does the signal itself degrade, but surrounding devices may also be disturbed. High-speed design employs ground plane segmentation, shielding layers, and the 3W rule (trace spacing ≥ 3 times the trace width) to reduce coupling and radiation. For instance, automotive electronics must meet CISPR 25 standards, while consumer electronics must comply with FCC/CE requirements. Standard laminates, with inconsistent loss characteristics, pose higher EMI risks. In contrast, low-loss laminates with stable dielectric properties combined with optimized layouts help designs pass compliance testing smoothly and avoid costly rework.

5. Driving Miniaturization and Cost Optimization

Beyond performance, high-speed PCB design enables smaller form factors and cost reduction. By optimizing the stack-up (e.g., replacing an 8-layer board with a 6-layer board) and using simulation tools such as HyperLynx and Sigrity, engineers can cut down on unnecessary test iterations. In smartphones, for example, high-speed PCB design allows RF modules and baseband chips to be integrated on a single board, reducing external components and lowering the BOM cost. Just like a fuel-efficient car that runs farther, high-speed design provides more design margin, bringing advantages in both cost and space.

6. Why Businesses Must Prioritize High-Speed PCB Design?

Technological barrier: Mastering high-speed design skills (e.g., 100Gbps SerDes, DDR5 routing) is the ticket to entering premium markets such as data centers and autonomous driving. Companies without such capabilities find it hard to compete, while those with them gain a key edge.
Yield control: Poor signal integrity can raise rework costs by more than 30%. By selecting appropriate high-speed materials (from Standard Loss to Ultra Low Loss grades) and optimizing through early-stage simulation, manufacturers can significantly increase yield.
Faster iteration: High-speed design tools (e.g., Cadence Sigrity, HyperLynx) shorten debugging cycles by nearly 50%, accelerating time-to-market. In today’s race, the companies with “fuel-efficient cars” always reach the finish line first.

To conclude, the importance of high-speed PCB design lies not only in achieving longer and more reliable signal transmission but also in enabling businesses to win in high-end applications and fast-paced markets. From fuel-efficiency analogies to Df-based material classification, from GHz-level communications to automotive compliance, high-speed PCB design has become the backbone of modern electronics. Ignoring it risks reliability and competitiveness; embracing it delivers higher performance, lower risk, and faster innovation.

Critical Factors Affecting High Speed PCB Performance

High speed PCB performance is not determined by a single parameter, but by the synergy between material properties, signal design, power management, and manufacturing precision. Below are the key factors that designers and manufacturers must address:

1. Signal Integrity

Clean signal transmission is the cornerstone of high speed design. Issues such as jitter, overshoot, crosstalk, and reflections can lead to timing errors and data loss. Techniques like impedance matching (50Ω single-ended, 100Ω differential), controlled differential pair routing, and length matching (tolerance <5 mils) are crucial to maintaining accuracy. For dense layouts, 3D simulation tools help minimize crosstalk by ensuring spacing follows the “3W rule.”

2. Material Properties and Loss Control

The choice of PCB laminate has a direct impact on insertion loss at high frequencies. Materials are classified by loss factor (Df), ranging from Standard Loss (0.015–0.020) to Ultra-Low Loss (<0.003). For example, Rogers 4350B or equivalent low-Df substrates are preferred for PCIe 4.0, SerDes, or 100Gbps channels. Additionally, copper foil roughness matters: HVLP copper reduces conductor loss by 12–16% compared to HTE foil, improving signal quality under skin effect conditions.

3. Impedance Control and Interconnect Design

Consistent impedance across transmission paths prevents reflections that degrade performance. Over vias, back-drilling is often applied to remove stubs (e.g., 0.5 mm) that otherwise cause impedance discontinuities. Differential via structures with optimized anti-pad designs (“dog-bone” style) help maintain return paths. These design practices significantly reduce insertion loss and return loss at multi-GHz ranges.

4. Layer Stackup Strategy

A well-planned stackup not only supports impedance stability but also minimizes EMI. High speed boards often adopt symmetrical arrangements such as GND–Signal–PWR–Signal–GND, ensuring solid reference planes. Embedding high-speed traces between planes shields them from external noise. Careful dielectric thickness control (±10% tolerance) keeps impedance consistent, which is vital for signal integrity.

5. Trace Geometry: Width and Spacing

The width, spacing, and uniformity of traces directly affect propagation delay and crosstalk. For example, 3 mil trace/space capability enables dense routing without sacrificing performance. To control coupling, designers follow spacing rules such as ≥3 times the trace width. Consistency is critical—variations in trace width beyond ±10% can cause impedance drift and signal degradation.

6. Power and Ground Plane Design

Stable power delivery and low noise levels are essential for reliable operation. Multi-layer PCBs often use GND–PWR–GND sandwich structures to reduce loop inductance. Decoupling capacitors (10–100 nF per chip) suppress power rail noise, while solid ground planes prevent splits that can generate unwanted EMI. Properly designed return paths are equally important for minimizing ground bounce in high-speed switching.

7. Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

High speed signals are natural sources of EMI. Following the 3W rule, adding guard traces, and using shielding planes help suppress radiation. Automotive systems, for example, must comply with CISPR 25, making EMC-oriented design indispensable. Simulation tools such as HyperLynx can predict EMI hotspots before prototyping, saving costly iterations.

8. Thermal Management and Reliability

High-speed ICs generate more heat, which can impact signal performance and long-term reliability. Thermal vias (0.3 mm drill size) and thicker copper layers (≥2 oz) improve dissipation. Materials like NE-glass fiber cloth also reduce dielectric loss and improve stability at elevated temperatures. Reliability further depends on process control: reflow soldering peaks at 260 °C must not delaminate laminates.

9. Manufacturing Tolerances and Testing

Even a perfect design can fail if manufacturing tolerances are not met. Line width and spacing tolerances of ±10% are typical targets. Advanced test methods such as Time-Domain Reflectometry (TDR) and S-parameter analysis verify insertion loss, return loss, and consistency with simulation models. Strict process control reduces rework and improves yield.

✅ Best Technology’s Approach
At Best Technology, we integrate advanced simulation, material selection guidance, and manufacturing expertise to address these challenges holistically. From recommending ultra-low-loss laminates to performing S-parameter validation, our team ensures high speed boards meet both electrical performance and compliance standards. This reduces trial-and-error cycles, shortens time-to-market, and increases end-user competitive edges.

How to Improve High Speed Board Design?

Designing high speed PCBs requires careful consideration of multiple interdependent factors. Beyond simple trace layout, designers must address signal integrity, power distribution, electromagnetic compatibility, and mechanical reliability. Below is a more structured and professional outline for improving high speed board design.

1. Signal Integrity and Trace Management

Minimize Trace Length: Shorter signal paths reduce propagation delay and signal degradation. Critical high-speed signals should be routed along the most direct paths to avoid unnecessary reflections and jitter.
Use Differential Pairs: For key signals such as high-speed serial interfaces (USB, PCIe), differential routing helps suppress common-mode noise and improves noise immunity. Differential traces must maintain matched lengths to ensure timing consistency.
Impedance Control: Maintain consistent impedance across layers. The choice of trace width, spacing, and distance to the reference plane directly affects signal reflections and losses. Tools such as SI simulators or field solvers can verify impedance accuracy before fabrication.
Crosstalk Mitigation: Increase spacing between adjacent traces, use ground traces or planes as shields, and consider orthogonal routing on adjacent layers to minimize coupling between high-speed lines.

2. Layer Stackup and Plane Design

Optimize Layer Arrangement: Place signal layers adjacent to reference planes (ground or power) to ensure controlled impedance and reduce EMI. High-speed layers should ideally be sandwiched between planes for shielding.
Power and Ground Plane Strategy: Avoid “dumbbell-shaped” splits that reduce current-carrying capacity and create hotspots. Use continuous planes wherever possible, and maintain short, wide planes to minimize voltage drops.
Via and Copper Pour Management: Vias introduce gaps in planes, which can increase impedance and create hotspots. Place vias in a grid to distribute current evenly and reduce localized impedance changes. Copper pours on top layers should be connected to ground at multiple points to prevent forming unintended antennas.

3. Power Integrity and Decoupling

Decoupling Capacitors: Strategically place capacitors near high-speed IC power pins to filter high-frequency noise and stabilize supply voltage. Multiple capacitors of different values can handle a broad frequency spectrum.
Power Distribution: Ensure low-impedance paths for power delivery. Closely coupled power and ground planes reduce inductance and support stable high-speed operation.
Return Path Optimization: High-speed signals require clear return paths. Interruptions in ground planes can increase EMI and signal distortion. Plan return paths carefully, especially around vias and split planes.

4. Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) and Noise Reduction

Radiation Control: High-speed traces act as antennas. Routing signals between planes or using internal layers for critical signals helps absorb radiated energy.
Shielding and Filtering: Use ground shields, ferrite beads, or filter components where necessary to suppress noise coupling. Design choices should consider both emission reduction and susceptibility to external interference.
Segregation of Noisy Circuits: Keep high-speed and noisy power circuits separate. Avoid routing sensitive analog traces near high-speed digital lines.

5. Thermal and Mechanical Considerations

Heat Management: High-speed ICs often generate substantial heat. Include thermal vias, copper pours, and heat sinks to maintain stable device temperatures and prevent signal drift.
Mechanical Reliability: Consider board strength and rigidity to prevent delamination or cracking due to vibration, shock, or thermal cycling. Reinforce critical areas and ensure via placement does not compromise structural integrity.
Manufacturability: Design within the capabilities of your PCB fabricator. Specify trace widths, spacing, and materials that match standard manufacturing tolerances to avoid production issues.

6. Simulation, Verification, and Iterative Improvement

Pre-Fabrication Simulation: Use signal integrity, power integrity, and EMC analysis tools to predict potential problems.
Post-Design Verification: Check for impedance mismatches, cross-talk hotspots, and voltage drops. Refine layout iteratively based on simulation results.
Prototyping and Testing: Fabricate a test board and perform measurements to verify timing, signal quality, and thermal performance before full-scale production.

In a nutshell, optimizing high-speed PCB design is not just about shortening traces or placing capacitors. It is a holistic process that integrates signal, power, electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical, and manufacturability considerations. Following a systematic approach with careful simulation, layout, and verification ensures stable, reliable, and high-performance high-speed boards.

High Speed Board Design Software

High-speed PCB design involves high-frequency signals and rapid signal transitions, making issues such as signal integrity, impedance matching, crosstalk, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) critical. Manual layout and experience-based design are often insufficient for such requirements. Specialized software can simulate signal propagation, analyze power and signal layer coupling, and identify potential problems early in the design phase, reducing rework and improving design success rates.

Limitations of Manual Design and the Need for Software

Traditional manual design relies heavily on experience and paper-based calculations, which may cause:

Impedance inconsistencies: Manual calculations struggle to maintain precise high-frequency impedance, leading to reflections and signal distortion.
Crosstalk issues: Small variations in high-speed trace spacing or layout can create serious signal coupling problems.
Complex return paths: Multi-layer boards make it difficult to optimize current return paths by hand.
Lack of simulation verification: Manual design cannot predict EMI, signal delay, or thermal issues before fabrication.

Software improves design precision, accelerates iteration, and provides simulation and optimization tools, making high-speed PCB design more reliable and efficient.

Key Features of High-Speed PCB Design Software

A competent high-speed PCB design software should offer:

Signal Integrity (SI) analysis: Simulates high-speed signal transmission to prevent jitter and reflection.
Power Integrity (PI) analysis: Ensures stable power distribution and reduces noise and voltage fluctuations.
Impedance calculation and control: Precisely calculates trace width, spacing, and layer distance to maintain impedance matching.
Differential pair and high-speed routing automation: Automatically matches trace lengths and optimizes routing to reduce human errors.
EMC/EMI optimization tools: Evaluates radiation and interference, supporting shielding and filtering design.
Design Rule Check (DRC) and manufacturability verification: Ensures the design meets production requirements, reducing rework.

Common High-Speed PCB Design Software

Altium Designer: Intuitive interface, supports automated high-speed routing and basic SI/PI simulation, ideal for rapid prototyping and small to medium projects.
Cadence Allegro / Sigrity: High-end software offering comprehensive SI/PI analysis and complex high-speed design capabilities, suitable for enterprise-level projects.
Mentor Graphics Xpedition: Designed for large multi-layer boards, with robust routing, simulation, and collaboration features, ideal for complex designs and team workflows.
KiCad: Open-source tool with growing functionality, suitable for education, experimentation, or small projects, with low cost.

How to Choose the Right Tool

When selecting a high-speed PCB design software, consider:

Project complexity: Multi-layer boards, high-speed interfaces, or high-frequency signals require feature-rich software.
Budget and team skills: High-end software can be expensive, and the team must have the expertise to use it effectively.
Simulation capabilities: Check whether the software supports SI/PI analysis, EMC optimization, and thermal management.
Manufacturing compatibility: Ensure it can generate Gerber and drill files compatible with your PCB manufacturer.

Practical Application Tips

Use differential pair routing and automatic length-matching tools to maintain signal synchronization.
Conduct SI/PI simulations before layout to detect potential issues early.
Combine thermal analysis and EMC optimization features to improve board-level performance.
Leverage DRC and manufacturability checks to reduce rework and improve production efficiency.

To sum up, high-speed PCB design software is essential for modern high-speed circuit projects. Selecting the right tool and combining simulation, automation, and optimization techniques significantly improves design efficiency and reliability. For most high-speed projects, software such as Altium, Cadence, or Mentor Graphics can be used individually or in combination, depending on project scale and budget, providing a practical path to high-quality designs.

Cost vs. Quality: Balancing High Speed PCB Design

In high-speed PCB design, balancing cost and quality requires considering multiple factors such as material selection, design tools, and signal integrity optimization. Key points are outlined below:

1. Material Selection and Cost Trade-Off

For high-frequency applications (e.g., GHz range), low-loss materials like Rogers laminates should be prioritized, though they are more expensive; for standard applications, FR-4 can be used to reduce costs.
Dielectric constant and loss characteristics must match the signal frequency to avoid increased rework costs due to inadequate material performance.

2. Design Tool Efficiency

Tools such as Allegro PCB High-Speed Option can automatically add electrical rules for interfaces like DDR3 or PCIe, reducing manual debugging time and improving design efficiency by 60%-70%.
Features like back-drilling and cutout routing optimization help lower iterative costs in later stages.

3. Signal Integrity Optimization

Impedance Matching: Adjust trace impedance using the reflection coefficient formula (ρ = (Z2 – Z1) / (Z2 + Z1)) to minimize signal reflections.
Topology Control: For critical transmission lines (e.g., 6-inch traces for signals ≥1000 MHz), strictly match length and spacing to avoid crosstalk.
Differential Design: Maintain equal length and parallel layout for differential pairs, preferably routing on the same layer (side-by-side).

4. Collaborative Design Workflow

During the schematic phase, annotate mechanical constraints, impedance requirements, and other details to reduce communication overhead during layout.
Regular design reviews with layout engineers help prevent misunderstandings that could lead to rework.

5. Cost Control Techniques

Relax timing requirements for non-critical signals to shorten the design cycle.
Use simulation tools (e.g., AppCAD) to anticipate potential issues and reduce the need for physical prototypes.

By applying these strategies, designers can effectively control costs and design timelines while ensuring signal quality.

Manufacturing Considerations in High Speed Board Design

High-speed and high-density PCB design has become a central trend in modern electronics. Unlike conventional boards, these designs face unique challenges that require careful manufacturing considerations to ensure performance, reliability, and compliance with electromagnetic standards. The following sections outline key manufacturing considerations for high-speed boards, integrating critical technical factors and practical approaches.

1. Signal Integrity Considerations

Signal integrity (SI) is fundamental to high-speed PCB manufacturing. It refers to the quality of signal transmission along a trace and ensures that the signal reaches the receiving component with correct timing, voltage, and duration. Poor signal integrity can lead to delays, reflections, overshoot, ringing, crosstalk, and timing errors.

From a manufacturing perspective, several factors influence SI:

Trace Width and Spacing: Precise control is required to maintain characteristic impedance and reduce reflections.
Layer Registration Accuracy: Misalignment between layers can introduce discontinuities affecting high-speed signals.
Component Placement: Incorrect positioning of high-speed components can create stubs or long traces that degrade SI.
Vias: Blind, buried, and through-hole vias affect impedance and can increase signal distortion if not properly designed.

Manufacturers must maintain tight tolerances in etching, copper thickness, and dielectric uniformity. High-speed designs demand precision that exceeds typical PCB fabrication standards.

2. Power Integrity and Distribution

Power integrity (PI) addresses voltage stability across the PCB, ensuring that each IC receives a clean, consistent power supply. In high-speed boards, variations in supply voltage can create significant noise and affect device operation.

Key manufacturing considerations include:

Optimized Layer Stackup: Proper power and ground plane arrangement minimizes impedance and noise.
Decoupling Capacitors: Strategically placed to stabilize power delivery, especially below 400 MHz. For higher frequencies, careful layout optimization is critical.
Minimizing Plane Splits: Interruptions in power/ground planes can exacerbate voltage fluctuations.

High-speed designs often require manufacturers to adhere to stricter tolerances in copper plane thickness, via fill techniques, and plating uniformity to maintain PI.

3. Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) and EMI

High-speed boards are particularly sensitive to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and must comply with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) standards. EMI can be radiated through traces, vias, and even small interconnects, while susceptibility (EMS) describes the board’s response to external interference.

Manufacturing factors that affect EMC include:

Trace Routing: Avoiding long parallel traces reduces crosstalk and radiation.
Grounding Strategies: Continuous ground planes and careful via stitching help contain EMI.
Shielding and Layer Management: Proper stackup and isolation layers limit unwanted emissions.

Due to complex EMI behaviors at high frequencies, manufacturers often need to implement expert-reviewed layout rules and perform pre-compliance testing during production.

4. Thermal Management

High-speed boards generate significant heat due to dynamic power consumption, skin effect, and densely packed components. Heat accumulation can degrade performance or cause failure of ICs, traces, and vias.

Manufacturing and design considerations for thermal performance include:

Thermal Vias: Provide effective heat transfer from hot components to internal planes.
Copper Planes and Heatsinks: Increase conduction paths and improve overall dissipation.
Component Placement: High-power components should be located to optimize airflow and minimize hotspots.

Advanced thermal analysis tools such as FLOTHERM, Auto Therm, and BETAsoft allow manufacturers to simulate and optimize heat distribution before production, preventing post-manufacture failures.

5. Fabrication Tolerances and Quality Assurance

High-speed boards require tighter manufacturing tolerances than conventional PCBs:

Etch Precision: Critical for maintaining impedance and reducing SI issues.
Layer Alignment: Misregistration can cause signal discontinuity.
Surface Finish: ENIG, OSP, or HASL finishes must ensure high-frequency signal reliability.

Quality assurance methods such as automated optical inspection (AOI), X-ray inspection, and electrical testing are essential to verify manufacturability and functional integrity.

6. Collaboration with Manufacturers

Close collaboration between design engineers and PCB fabricators is crucial. Designers must understand manufacturing capabilities, while manufacturers must implement precise process controls to meet high-speed requirements. Early discussion on stackup, materials, and thermal constraints can prevent costly iterations and ensure the board performs as intended.

7. Emerging Trends in High-Speed Board Manufacturing

Chip-Package-Board Co-Design: Modern high-speed designs require integration between silicon, package, and board layout to address SI, PI, and EMC challenges simultaneously.
EDA Tool Integration: Tools like Cadence Allegro, Mentor Graphics, and Synopsys facilitate pre-manufacturing simulations of SI, PI, EMC, and thermal characteristics.
Parallel Design: Collaborative, real-time PCB design accelerates manufacturing readiness while maintaining high-speed performance standards.

Ultimately, manufacturing high-speed boards is more than traditional PCB fabrication—it requires precision in material selection, trace control, layer stackup, thermal management, and EMC compliance. By combining advanced EDA tools, rigorous design rules, and close collaboration between designers and fabricators, high-speed boards can meet the stringent performance and reliability standards of modern electronics.

In closing, high speed board design is vital for modern electronics. This blog addresses practical ways to enhance high speed board design, from layout optimization and software tools to balancing cost and manufacturing needs. By the way, Best Technology has rich and useful specializations and expertise in the aspects from high speed board design tutorial to box build service. If you are looking to leverage our expertise in high-speed board design or require end-to-end solutions from PCB prototyping to box build assembly, please reach us at sales@bestpcbs.com.

FAQs

What material is used for high speed PCB design?

High speed PCB design often requires materials with low dielectric loss and stable dielectric constant. Common options include Rogers laminates, Taconic, Megtron, and Isola high-frequency materials. For cost-sensitive projects, high-TG FR-4 may be used, but for GHz-level signals, specialized laminates are preferred to maintain signal integrity.

What is the rule of thumb for PCB?

A common rule of thumb in PCB design is to keep traces as short and direct as possible, especially for high-speed signals. Shorter traces reduce delay, crosstalk, and signal reflections. In addition, maintaining consistent impedance and proper grounding are essential to avoid signal degradation.

What is the 3W rule for PCB?

The 3W rule states that the spacing between high-speed signal traces should be at least three times the trace width. This reduces crosstalk between adjacent signals by limiting electromagnetic coupling. For critical designs, even wider spacing may be adopted.

What is the 3H rule in PCB?

The 3H rule applies to the distance between signal traces and the reference ground plane. The separation should be at least three times the dielectric thickness (H). This helps minimize electromagnetic interference and improves signal isolation.

What is the 20H rule in PCB?

The 20H rule is used for power and ground plane design. It suggests that the power plane should be smaller than the ground plane by 20 times the dielectric thickness (H). This reduces edge radiation and enhances electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) performance.

What is the 5W rule for PCB?

The 5W rule is typically applied to high-current traces. It means that the spacing between traces should be at least five times the trace width (W) to reduce mutual heating and electromagnetic interference, ensuring safe and stable operation.

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What is High Frequency Laminate PCB Board?

Monday, September 15th, 2025

High frequency laminate PCB board is the backbone of many modern communication, radar, and aerospace systems. This comprehensive guide covers points that include definition, material, features, layouts, costs, and applications of high-frequency PCBs. Besides, we have covered the insights about how to build a reliable PCB high frequency and where to get high frequency laminate PCB board.

Have you encountered these issues in your high frequency PCB communication circuits’ projects?

High costs in high frequency laminate PCB board material and manufacturing?
Greater design complexity and the relatively high requirement of designers?
Unstable operation due to the improper material selection or poor manufacturing process?
Full complexity of manufacturing, high requirements of equipment, and process control?

With these actionable solutions, even the toughest challenges can be overcome.

Optimize material selection: Balance performance and costs via selecting suitable materials of different application needs.

Boost design: Elevate layout and impedance control through innovative design tools and methods.

Adjust process control: Ensure the product performance and reliability by cutting-edge manufacturing process and strict quality control.

Get reliable cooperation and support: Get technical support and solution by collaborating with a professional high frequency PCB manufacturer and material suppliers.

As a high frequency PCB manufacturer, Best Technology focuses on factory price PCB high frequency board prototyping, mass production, assembly with higher quality. Our product portfolio includes high frequency board PCB, high speed DAC board, high speed board, copper busbar PCB, HDI PCB, and others. We hold a competitive edge by improving product performance and effectively tackling customer pain points in high frequency PCB applications. We provide comprehensive technical support in material selection, design optimization, mass manufacturing, and quality control. If you have faced any PCB problems and want to get unique solutions for your projects, we would appreciate it if you could connect with us at sales@bestpcbs.com.

What is High Frequency Laminate PCB Board?

A high frequency laminate PCB board is a printed circuit board designed for high-frequency signal transmission.

Frequency Range
- Generally, a circuit board with a frequency above 1 GHz can be considered a high frequency PCB.
- With the advancement of technology, more designs are moving into:
  - The microwave range (>1 GHz)
  - The millimeter-wave range (>30 GHz)
Design Requirements
High-frequency signals are extremely sensitive to the surrounding medium. Therefore, high frequency laminate PCB boards require:
- Specialized laminate materials
- Precise design and layout
  This ensures signal integrity, stability, and reliable performance.
Applications
High frequency laminate PCB boards are widely used in advanced electronic systems where speed and low loss are critical, including:
- High-frequency communication equipment
- Radar and navigation systems
- Automotive millimeter-wave radar
- Satellite and aerospace electronics
In these fields, high-frequency PCB design is crucial to achieving reliable, stable, and efficient signal transmission.
Importance of Material
The foundation of a high frequency PCB lies in its laminate material. Proper material selection directly determines how well the board performs in real applications. Key characteristics include:
- Low dielectric constant (Dk): Maintains fast and stable signal transmission.
- Low dissipation factor (Df): Reduces energy loss at high frequencies, improving transmission efficiency.
- Excellent chemical stability: Ensures reliability in harsh conditions such as high temperature or humidity.
Additional Design Considerations
Factors like PCB laminate thickness also influence impedance control and signal quality in high-frequency PCB design. Choosing the right high-frequency laminate PCB board material is therefore essential to achieving both reliability and performance in modern electronic devices.

What is the Best PCB Material for High-Frequency?

1. Material Categories and Characteristics

Organic Materials (e.g., Glass Fiber/Epoxy, Polyimide (PI), BT/Epoxy)
- Characteristics: Good insulation, easy to process, suitable for medium to high-frequency circuits, moderate heat dissipation.
- Applications: General communication boards, consumer electronics.
Inorganic Materials (e.g., Aluminum-based, Copper-Invar-Copper (CIC), Ceramic)
- Characteristics: Excellent thermal conductivity, high thermal stability, suitable for high-power and high-frequency circuits.
- Applications: RF modules, radar systems, 5G mainboards.

2. PCB Type Classification

Rigid PCB: High structural stability, suitable for precision circuits.
Flexible PCB: Bendable, ideal for space-constrained designs.
Rigid-Flex PCB: Combines rigidity and flexibility, perfect for complex layouts.

3. Structure Classification

Single-layer, double-layer, multi-layer boards.
High-frequency circuits typically use double-layer or multi-layer boards to ensure signal integrity and controlled impedance.

4. Common High-Frequency PCB Materials

PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene): Low signal loss, suitable for microwave frequency applications.
Ceramic-filled PTFE: Better heat dissipation and mechanical strength, suitable for high-power applications.
High-polymer Ceramic Materials: High thermal stability and stable dielectric constant, ideal for 5G and radar circuits.
RF Series High-Frequency Materials (e.g., ROGERS RO4000 series): Good processability, suitable for RF and microwave applications.

5. Leading Brands and Recommended Applications

Brand	Typical Models	Recommended Applications
ISOLA	Tachyon 100G	Antennas, RF modules
PANASONIC	R-5680 / R-5680N	High-frequency communication, microwave circuits
ROGERS	RO3003 / RO4350 / RO4730	Radar, 5G mainboards
TACONIC	RF35	High-speed signal transmission, RF boards
Shengyi	AW300	High-frequency communication boards, RF modules

6. Material Selection Tips

High-frequency signals or radar boards: Choose low-loss, thermally stable materials (ceramic-filled PTFE or ROGERS series).
Consumer electronics or general communication boards: Consider cost-effective organic materials with good processability.
High-power or high-heat applications: Opt for inorganic materials or thicker copper cores.

In summary, when selecting high-frequency PCB materials, it is essential to consider signal frequency, power, thermal management, and manufacturing complexity. By understanding the material properties and application requirements, engineers can choose the most suitable PCB material for optimal performance and reliability.

What is the Difference: High-Frequency PCB, High Speed PCB?

High-Frequency PCB

Definition: Designed to handle high-frequency signals, typically above 1 GHz.
Key Features: Signals are sensitive to materials and dielectric properties. Key factors include dielectric constant, loss factor, and thermal stability.
Design Focus:
- Material selection: Low dielectric constant, low-loss materials such as PTFE, ROGERS, or ceramic-filled PTFE.
- Impedance control: Critical for microwave and RF circuits.
- Signal integrity: Minimizing signal attenuation and crosstalk.
Typical Applications: 5G communication modules, radar systems, antennas, RF equipment.

High-Speed PCB

Definition: Handles signals that change very quickly, focusing on fast rising and falling edges rather than just high frequency.
Key Features: Transmission line effects cannot be ignored due to rapid signal switching. Signal integrity, reflections, and crosstalk are the main design concerns.
Design Focus:
- Trace length and routing: Careful layout to maintain signal integrity.
- Impedance matching: Critical for high-speed data transfer.
- Materials: Often improved FR4 or multi-layer boards, chosen to support high-speed digital signals.
Typical Applications: High-speed data buses, CPU interfaces, FPGA boards, high-speed memory interfaces.

High-Frequency PCB vs High-Speed PCB: Key Differences

Comparison Point	High-Frequency PCB	High-Speed PCB
Core Focus	Signal frequency (GHz and above)	Signal transition speed (fast rising/falling edges)
Material Requirements	Low dielectric constant, low loss	Signal integrity, impedance control
Common Materials	PTFE, ceramic, ROGERS series	Improved FR4, multi-layer boards
Typical Applications	Microwave, RF, radar, 5G	High-speed digital signals, CPU, FPGA, memory
Signal Characteristics	High-frequency, attenuation-sensitive	Fast-changing signals, reflection-sensitive

To conclude, high-frequency PCBs focus on handling high-frequency signals, where material choice is critical. While high-speed PCBs focus on fast signal transitions, emphasizing signal integrity and impedance control. In some cases, both aspects overlap—high-speed signals may also be high frequency, requiring attention to both material and design considerations.

What is High Frequency PCB Layout?

1. Keep RF Circuit Layout and Connections as Short as Possible

In high frequency circuits, impedance changes at transmission line corners can cause signal reflection. High-frequency signals may radiate as electromagnetic energy into the surrounding space. As a result, the signal level may drop after a “corner.”

Therefore, when designing high-frequency circuits, the RF layout must be carefully planned so that the corner angles of RF traces are minimized.

If there is enough space on the board, arrange RF components in as straight a line as possible. Straight-line placement and routing help prevent signal reflections and maintain signal levels to meet design requirements.

Key Point: In low-frequency circuits, right-angle traces can work normally. However, in high-frequency circuits, even minor variations in trace width affect the characteristic impedance, causing reflections and reducing signal levels.

2. Use Components or Rounded Corners at RF Trace Bends to Minimize Impedance Discontinuity

Following the principle of avoiding impedance discontinuities, if space allows, prioritize short and straight RF trace routing. If corners are unavoidable, avoid 90° or 45° angles. Use rounded traces instead. If a right-angle turn is necessary, place components strategically to create the turn through component positioning. This approach minimizes signal reflection caused by impedance changes.

Key Point: In high-frequency circuits, improving RF trace layout is crucial. Always follow the principle of avoiding characteristic impedance discontinuities.

3. Provide Separate Ground for Each Pad; Avoid Sharing Ground Vias

High-frequency PCB design requires careful management of RF trace-to-GND connections. In the picture above showing the incorrect design, multiple RF component ground pads share a single via to the GND plane.

In the picture below showing the optimized design, each ground pad is connected to the GND plane through its own nearby via. This minimizes the ground loop and reduces noise.

Key Point: Compared with conventional circuits, high-frequency circuits require strict control over GND connections. Each ground pad should have its own via to the GND plane for the shortest connection path.

4. Maintain Symmetry in RF Balun Differential Traces

When designing high-frequency circuits, special attention must be paid to routing within the same circuit section. For example, in the balun circuit shown above, the left and right traces are asymmetric.

In the improved balun circuit shown below, the RF trace length is shortened and the layout is kept symmetrical.

Key Point: Trace layout significantly affects performance in high-frequency circuits.

5. Widen Clearance in Reference Layers for 50Ω RF Traces

For PCBs combining RF and high-speed signals, RF traces require controlled 50Ω impedance, and high-speed lines also require impedance control. For example, a 50Ω single-ended or 100Ω differential line may use very narrow traces (e.g., 4mil for BGA areas) for high-speed routing. However, RF traces must minimize insertion loss, which includes dielectric loss, conductor loss, radiation loss, and leakage loss. Increasing RF trace width can reduce insertion loss, but width is not always better. For microwave and millimeter-wave applications, excessively wide traces can generate unwanted parasitic signals and affect transmission.

Typically, RF trace width is around 20mil (matching 0402 pads), but wider traces increase the distance to the reference plane. Impedance is mainly affected by dielectric thickness, dielectric constant, trace width, copper thickness, and solder mask thickness. Among these, dielectric thickness and trace width are most significant. Impedance is usually controlled by adjusting either the trace width or the dielectric thickness.

High-speed lines may use 4mil width, whereas RF lines require 20mil. If both reference the same plane with fixed dielectric thickness, achieving the same impedance is impossible. To address this, designers adjust the RF trace impedance by creating a “split reference layer”: place the RF trace on the top layer, clear the second layer underneath, and reference the third layer to increase dielectric thickness.

However, clearance areas require careful sizing. Simply copying top-layer RF traces onto the second layer as clearance is insufficient. The copper on the second layer can still affect impedance. The clearance should be at least three times the RF trace width.

How is High Frequency Laminate PCB Board Cost?

The cost of a high frequency laminate PCB board is influenced by multiple factors that go beyond just the raw materials. From a reader’s perspective, it’s important to understand not only why the cost is higher but also what value they gain from it.

1. Laminate Material Choice
The type of laminate is the biggest driver of cost. PTFE-based laminates, for instance, are more expensive than standard FR-4 because they deliver low loss, stable dielectric constant, and reliable performance at gigahertz frequencies. Hydrocarbon or ceramic-filled materials may reduce cost slightly but still carry a premium compared with conventional boards.

2. Layer Count and Stack-Up
A simple two-layer board is much more affordable than a 6- or 8-layer high frequency design. Each added layer increases not only material cost but also the complexity of lamination and drilling. Customers often need controlled impedance in multiple layers, which further adds to expense.

3. Processing Complexity
Manufacturing high frequency boards demands precision. Things like tighter trace width control, plated through-holes with strict aspect ratios, and smooth copper foils increase production difficulty. These steps consume more time and raise yield risk, which reflects in pricing.

4. Additional Testing and Tolerances
Controlled impedance testing, dielectric constant verification, and stricter quality checks are often mandatory in RF or microwave PCBs. These extra processes add cost, but they are necessary to guarantee stable signal transmission in critical systems.

5. Order Volume and Lead Time
Prototypes or small-volume runs typically cost more per unit due to setup charges. Lead time also impacts pricing — urgent jobs require production line adjustments, which may add a premium.

6. The Value Perspective
While customers sometimes worry about hidden charges or fluctuating costs, it’s worth seeing these expenses as an investment in reliability. A cheaper material or less accurate process could lead to signal loss, overheating, or premature failure. Paying more upfront often prevents higher costs from rework or product failure later.

7. How Best Technology Helps
At Best Technology, we provide transparent quotations that break down each cost factor clearly, so there are no surprises. Our MES system tracks every process step, offering full traceability and accurate lead time updates. Customers benefit not only from reliable products but also from feasible solutions, knowing there are no hidden costs or blind spots in communication.

How to Build a High Frequency Sound Emitter PCB?

1. Understanding the Core Function

A high frequency sound emitter PCB is essentially a simplified high frequency signal generator.
It works by combining two key parts: an audio oscillator and a high frequency oscillator.
The audio oscillator produces low-frequency signals, while the high frequency oscillator generates a carrier wave. Together, they create a modulated high frequency output that drives piezoelectric components.

2. Design Specifications to Consider

Operating frequency range: Multiple bands are often required, e.g. from hundreds of kHz up to tens of MHz.
Power supply voltage: Stable supply is crucial to avoid signal distortion.
Output power: Must be sufficient to drive the piezoelectric emitter effectively.
Modulation type: Basic amplitude modulation (AM) is commonly used.
Signal purity: The waveform should remain stable and low in distortion for consistent acoustic output.

3. Key Circuit Building Blocks

Audio Oscillator: Often an LC-based oscillator, designed to produce a 1kHz reference audio signal. Proper biasing and transistor selection help ensure stable oscillation.
High Frequency Oscillator: Typically a transformer-feedback or LC oscillator, generating tunable carrier waves. It must support multiple frequency bands with smooth adjustment.
Modulation Section: Combines the audio and high frequency signals, producing an amplitude-modulated output.
Output Stage: Provides sufficient energy and stability for driving the piezo element without waveform distortion.

4. Material and PCB Considerations

Laminate selection: High frequency laminates with stable dielectric constant (Dk) reduce signal loss and maintain frequency stability.
Copper thickness and PCB stack-up: Affect both impedance control and acoustic performance.
Grounding and shielding: Critical for reducing noise, especially in RF and audio combination circuits.

5. Challenges for Beginners

Poor material choice often leads to unstable oscillation.
Improper grounding can create unwanted noise in the output.
Incorrect component values or layout may cause difficulty in tuning frequency ranges.

6. Support from Best Technology

Our engineering team assists customers from schematic design through PCB layout and assembly.
Guidance on material selection, oscillator tuning, and EMI control is provided.
With MES tracking, clients gain transparency across every production stage, saving both development time and cost.

What are the Uses of High Frequency PCB Communication Circuits?

1. Role in Telecommunication Networks

High frequency PCBs are essential in telecom infrastructure, especially in wireless base stations, antennas, and microwave equipment.
Their low-loss characteristics and strong anti-interference capability ensure higher transmission efficiency and stable connections.
With the rise of 5G and beyond, demand for high precision and reliable high frequency PCBs is growing rapidly.

2. Applications in Wireless Communication Devices

Widely used in smartphones, Wi-Fi routers, and wireless networking equipment.
Support higher transmission rates and extended communication ranges, meeting the increasing demands of modern users.
Their stable signal transmission reduces distortion and attenuation, improving user experience in daily wireless communication.

3. Use in Radar Systems

Radar applications rely on accurate high frequency signal processing for detection and tracking.
High frequency PCBs, with their low dielectric loss and high dimensional stability, enhance radar sensitivity and resolution.
Commonly integrated into radar antennas, signal processors, and control modules to ensure precise performance even in complex environments.

4. Importance in Satellite Communication

Satellite systems require long-distance, high-frequency data transmission.
High frequency PCBs offer low-loss transmission, heat resistance, and high reliability, critical for space-grade equipment.
Used in both transmitting and receiving modules, they help improve satellite communication quality, speed, and consistency.

5. Broad Impact Across Industries

Their reliability makes them valuable not only in commercial telecom but also in medical imaging, aerospace, and defense systems.
Certifications such as ISO 9001, ISO 13485, IATF 16949, and AS9100D ensure compliance with strict quality and safety standards. Best Technology ensures quality through implementing these quality standards.
As communication technology evolves, future trends point toward higher frequencies, faster data rates, and lower signal loss, expanding their application prospects.

Where to Get Best High Frequency Laminate PCB Board?

Choosing the right supplier is as important as the board itself. Best Technology provide you with best high frequency laminate PCB boards. The following points give us a competitive edge in world markets.

MES System: Our factory is equipped with a fully digitalized workshop and warehouse, enabling comprehensive product traceability. Every product can be traced back to the responsible personnel, equipment, and suppliers.

Strict Quality Control: We have professional quality supervisors, engineers, and complete testing equipment. Our bare board pass rate reaches 99%, while SMT quality pass rate is 98%. For special products, complex processes, or customer complaints, our QC team conducts real-time inspections and follow-ups to ensure products meet standards and are delivered smoothly.

Professional Technical Capability: Our engineers receive regular product knowledge training, and all operational procedures are standardized through SOPs to ensure consistent production quality.

Long-term and Stable Supply Chain: We establish strategic partnerships with key suppliers to guarantee stable material supply and consistent quality. Detailed supply chain plans are implemented to ensure production flexibility and the ability to respond to unexpected events.

Where to Get Best High Frequency Laminate PCB Board?

To sum up, the demand for high frequency laminate PCB board continues to rise as industries shift toward faster and smarter systems. This blog explores high frequency laminate PCB boards: design tips, materials, costs, layouts, applications, and building high-frequency circuits. If you need high frequency design PCB manufacturing, just feel free to let us know at sales@bestpcbs.com.

FAQs

1. What is the 20H rule in PCB?

The 20H rule is a guideline used in PCB design to determine the threshold for considering a signal as high-frequency. It states that if the signal’s wavelength is less than 20 times the trace length (H = trace height), transmission line effects become significant, and high-frequency PCB design principles must be applied. This helps designers decide when to treat traces as transmission lines to avoid signal reflections and integrity issues.

2. How many Hz is considered high-frequency?

In PCB design, high-frequency signals are generally considered to be those above 1 GHz. However, some applications treat signals in the hundreds of MHz range as high-frequency, especially if precise impedance control and signal integrity are critical. Essentially, any frequency where PCB layout, material properties, and trace effects significantly impact signal quality qualifies as high-frequency.

3. What is the 3H rule in PCB?

The 3H rule is a practical guideline for determining when a PCB trace behaves as a transmission line. It states that if the trace length is longer than three times the height (H) of the dielectric between the trace and reference plane, transmission line effects such as reflections, impedance mismatch, and signal distortion should be considered in the design. This is especially important for high-speed or high-frequency circuits.

4. What is the 5W rule for PCB?

The 5W rule is a simplified guideline used for high-speed PCB layout. It suggests that if a trace length exceeds five times the trace width (W), signal integrity issues like reflections, ringing, or crosstalk may occur. Designers can use this rule to quickly assess whether transmission line effects need to be analyzed and controlled for critical signals.

Tags:high frequency laminate pcb board, high frequency pcb
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High Frequency PCB Board for RFID Readers

Monday, September 15th, 2025

Why choose high frequency PCB for RFID readers? Let’s discover its benefits, applications, material selection, design technical parameter, design optimize solutions, recommended PCB manufacturer.

Are you worried about these problems?

How to select high frequency PCB board materials?
How to control high frequency PCB board processes?
How to balance cost vs lead time of high frequency PCB?

As a high frequency PCB manufacturer, Best Technology can provide services and solutions:

Low-loss Material Supply‌: Stocked PTFE/Rogers laminates ensure stable dielectric constant (Dk≤3.0), reducing signal loss by 40%+.
Precision Impedance Control‌:±0.02mm trace width tolerance maintains ≤5% impedance variation for flawless signal transmission.
Rapid-response Flexible Production‌: Prototypes in 5-7 days, bulk order lead time shortened by 30% with 15%+ cost optimization.

Welcome to contact us if you have any inquiry for high-frequency PCB board: sales@bestpcbs.com.

Why Choose High Frequency PCB for RFID Readers?

Reasons why choose high frequency PCB for RFID readers:

Breakthrough in Reading Distance: Adopting low-loss substrates like Rogers RO4350B reduces signal transmission loss by 40%, enabling UHF-band reading distances exceeding 12 meters, ideal for large-scale logistics and warehouse scanning.
Enhanced Anti-Interference Capability: Optimized microstrip layout and multi-layer shielding grounding meet ETSI EN 302 208 standards, improving signal stability by 60% in industrial electromagnetic environments.
High-Speed Signal Integrity: Precise 50Ω impedance matching and decoupling capacitor configurations ensure data transmission rates up to 100Mbps, guaranteeing rapid tag response.
Precision Manufacturing Process: 0.1mm line/space blind-buried via technology with ±5% copper plating thickness tolerance minimizes signal loss and enhances system reliability.
TCO Optimization Proven: Case studies like DHL show 35% improvement in asset tracking efficiency, 99.2% inventory accuracy, 28% reduction in 5-year maintenance costs, and an 18-month payback period.
5G IoT Compatibility: Supports sub-6GHz bands and millimeter-wave integration, complying with 3GPP Release 17 specifications for future smart logistics and autonomous driving scenarios.
Global Standard Compliance: Passes GS1 certification, IEEE 802.11 compatibility tests, and RoHS material requirements, ensuring seamless global market access.
Supplier Evaluation Framework: Structured assessment model covering material certification, process capability, testing validation, and case references, providing quantifiable decision-making tools for commercial conversion.

Applications of High Frequency PCB in RFID Readers

NFC Payment Terminals
Smart Access Control Systems
Industrial Sensor Networks
Large-scale logistics and warehouse scanning
Smart retail shelf management
Real-time medical equipment tracking
Contactless vehicle passage in transportation
Industrial automation production line control
Smart city infrastructure monitoring
Cold chain logistics temperature tracking

How to Choose High Frequency PCB Material for RFID Readers?

1. Three Key Parameters

Low Dk (≤3.6, e.g., Rogers RO4350B Dk=3.48) reduces signal delay; PTFE (Dk=2.1) suits UHF/mmWave for faster transmission.
Low Df (≤0.004, e.g., RO4350B Df=0.0037) minimizes signal loss; PTFE (Df=0.001) ensures 5G/6G signal integrity.
High Tg (≥150°C, e.g., RO4350B Tg=280°C) resists heat; PTFE handles -260°C~260°C for extreme conditions.

2. Scenario-Specific Matching

UHF (900MHz) uses RO4000 series (low cost, easy processing); 5G/mmWave (24GHz+) selects PTFE (low loss) or ceramic-filled materials (high stability).
Humid environments choose PTFE (water absorption ≤0.02%); high-temperature scenarios use PI (Tg≥260°C); anti-metal interference requires multi-layer shielding grounding.

3. Cost-Process Balance

Mid-frequency (≤10GHz) prefers RO4000 series (40% cheaper than PTFE); high-frequency (≥10GHz) uses PTFE (superior performance but 3-5x costlier).
RO4000 works with FR4 processes (lower equipment investment); PTFE needs specialized tools for precision needs.

4. EMC Compliance Essentials

Optimized microstrip lines + multi-layer shielding (meets ETSI EN 302 208) suppress 900MHz interference; decoupling capacitors near chip pins ensure clean power.
Prioritize GS1/IEEE 802.11/RoHS-certified materials; suppliers must provide impedance matching and signal integrity reports.

5. Validation Loop

Test read distance/anti-interference in real scenarios such as logistics, medical to verify performance.
Evaluate suppliers’ material certifications (e.g., Rogers authorization), process capabilities (blind/buried via yield ≥98%), and case references for reliable supply chain.

How to Choose High Frequency PCB Material for RFID Readers?

High Frequency PCB Board Design Technical Parameter

Parameter Category	Specification
Dielectric Constant (Dk)	2.0-3.6 (PTFE substrate down to 2.0-2.2)
Dissipation Factor (Df)	0.0004-0.004 (PTFE down to 0.0004)
Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)	150°C-280°C (RO4350B up to 280°C)
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE)	Matched with components (avoid thermal stress)
Water Absorption	≤0.02% (PTFE)
Impedance Control	50Ω single-ended / 90-100Ω differential (±3%-±5% tolerance)
Trace Width/Spacing	Minimum 4mil/4mil (after etching)
Dielectric Thickness	0.1-0.3mm (microstrip dielectric thickness)
Copper Foil Type	Electrolytic Copper (ED)/Rolled Annealed Copper (RA)
EMC Design	Shield grounding/stitching vias/differential routing

How to Design High-Frequency PCBs to Optimize the Reading Distance of RFID Readers?

1. Antenna Size & Polarization Optimization

Size Scaling: 86×54mm large-size tags achieve 12m read range in industrial scenarios (260% improvement vs 35×35mm tags), suitable for large object identification like warehouse pallets.
Circular Polarization: Spiral/microstrip patch antennas support random tag orientation, improving detection rate from 75% to 98% in logistics sorting.
Metal Clearance: Maintain ≥10cm spacing between antenna and metal objects; optimized layout reduces read range attenuation by 40% in metal-adjacent scenarios.

2. Low-Loss Material Selection

Material Comparison: Rogers RO4350B (Dk=3.48/Df=0.0037) reduces signal attenuation by 40% vs FR4 for UHF; Taconic TLY-5 (Dk=2.2/Df=0.002) excels in millimeter-wave for 5G integration.
Dielectric Constant Control: Dk deviation ≤±0.05 ensures impedance matching precision, minimizing signal reflection loss.
Moisture Management: PTFE substrates with ≤0.02% water absorption require waterproof coatings or low-absorption materials in humid environments.

3. Stack-Up & Impedance Control

6-Layer Structure: TOP (RF signal)-GND-Inner signal-Power-GND-BOTTOM (mmWave signal) ensures tight coupling between signal layers and ground planes, reducing crosstalk.
Microstrip Design: 50Ω single-ended line width matches 0.1-0.3mm dielectric thickness; differential impedance targets 90-100Ω.
Tolerance Control: Single-ended impedance deviation ≤±5%, verified via simulation (e.g., Ansys HFSS) and network analyzer calibration.

4. Ground Plane & Power Integrity

Continuous Ground: Via fences (spacing ≤0.2λ) suppress EM leakage; avoid ground plane splitting to maintain signal integrity.
Power Decoupling: Parallel 1nF/100nF capacitors reduce power ripple to <50mV; low-noise LDO modules enhance signal purity.
Ground Bounce Mitigation: Multi-layer ground planes interconnected via metalized vias create low-impedance return paths, reducing ground noise impact.

5. Impedance Matching & Dynamic Tuning

Smith Chart Matching: LC/π-networks achieve 50Ω matching, improving sensitivity by 2-3dB and restoring ≥3.2m read range in metal environments.
Calibration: S-parameter testing ensures tuning accuracy; dynamic tuning algorithms adapt to impedance fluctuations from tag position changes.
Anti-Metal Solutions: Ceramic substrates or absorptive adhesive tags with FHSS combat EM interference, maintaining 99% recognition rates on metal surfaces.

6. Environmental Robustness Enhancements

Liquid Compensation: Dielectric constant compensation reduces signal attenuation; phased-array antennas minimize 89% blind spots in liquid container detection.
Thermal Stability: Materials with Tg≥150℃ (e.g., RO4350B Tg=280℃) operate in -40℃~150℃ environments, preventing layer separation or performance degradation.
Mechanical Optimization: 2oz copper thickness and thermal vias enhance PCB durability against vibration/impact in logistics.

7. System-Level Dynamic Optimization

Power Adaptation: 0.5W-2W dynamic regulation increases tag recognition from 200 to 800 per read, optimizing multi-tag concurrency.
Q-Value Anti-Collision: Machine learning predicts optimal read windows, boosting dynamic scene recognition by 40% and reducing missed tags.
Thermal Management: High-thermal-conductivity materials (e.g., copper substrates) with thermal vias dissipate heat from high-frequency power loss, ensuring stable operation and extended lifespan.

How to Design High-Frequency PCBs to Optimize the Reading Distance of RFID Readers?

Why Choose Best Technology as High Frequency PCB Manufacturer?

Reasons why choose us as high frequency PCB manufacturer:

19 Years of Expertise: 19-year focus on high-frequency PCBs with 5,000+ validated projects. Unique process knowledge base and failure analysis system reduce defect rates by 60% vs industry average.
Quality Certification: ISO9001/IATF16949/ISO13485 certified, make sure that every process passed ISO quality inspection system.
5-7 Days Rapid Prototyping: 5-7 Days prototype delivery for standard high-frequency PCBs; 3-5 Days turnaround for urgent orders. Supports 180+ global regions with 99.2% on-time delivery for urgent R&D needs.
Advanced Material: Uses low-loss materials like Rogers RO4350B and Taconic TLY-5 (Dk=2.2-3.48, Df=0.0004-0.0037) with dielectric constant tolerance ≤±0.02, reducing signal loss by 40% vs FR4.
Precision Process Control: High-precision CNC drilling, laser cutting, and automated lines ensure ±0.01mm line width/spacing and ±5% impedance matching accuracy for 50Ω/75Ω standards.
Cost Advantage: Eco-friendly high-frequency materials cut costs by 40%. Tiered pricing: double-layer boards as low as ¥0.8/piece; six-layer boards under ¥220/m², 30% cheaper than imports.
Reliability Testing: Endures -40°C to 125°C thermal cycling, humidity shock, and signal loss optimization. Maintains stability in extreme environments (such as space simulation, industrial radar) with <0.1% error rate.
Turnkey Solutions: Full-service support from circuit design and BOM sourcing to PCB assembly. Reduces overall cycle time by 50% with rapid customization response.

Here is a photo of high frequency PCB we did before:

Parameter	Specification
Substrate Model	Rogers RO4350B (Dk=3.48/Df=0.0037), Taconic TLY-5 (Dk=2.2/Df=0.002)
Layer Structure	4-10 layer multilayer board, supports high-frequency + HDI hybrid process
Size Range	50×50mm to 500×500mm
Copper Thickness	0.5oz-2oz (2oz recommended for high-power areas)
Impedance Control	50Ω±5% (matches RFID antenna standards)
Line Width/Spacing	Minimum 75μm/75μm (high-frequency signal transmission precision)
Surface Finish	ENIG (Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold), OSP (Organic Solderability Preservative)
Special Processes	Blind/buried vias (depth ≤6 layers), backdrilled stub ≤50μm
Frequency Range	13.56MHz / UHF (860-960MHz)

Why Choose Best Technology as High Frequency PCB Manufacturer?

Our High Frequency PCB Capabilities

Base material:	Rogers/Telfon
Board Thickness:	0.5mm~3.0mm(0.02″~0.12″)
Copper thickness:	0.5 OZ, 1.0 OZ, 2.0 OZ, 3.0 OZ
Outline:	Routing, punching, V-Cut
Soldermask:	White/Black/Blue/Green/Red Oil
Legend/Silkscreen Color:	Black/White
Surface finishing:	Immersion Gold, HASL, OSP
Max Panel size:	600500mm(23.62″19.68″)
Packing:	Vacuum/Plastic bag
Samples L/T:	7~9 Days
MP L/T:	8~10 Days

How to Get a Quote for High-Frequency PCB Project?

1. Basic Design Files

Gerber Files: Include all layers (with drill files), specify version (e.g., RS-274X).
Stack-up Diagram: Define dielectric thickness, copper thickness, and material type (e.g., Rogers RO4350B, FR4).
Impedance Control: Mark critical signal impedance values (e.g., 50Ω±10%) and corresponding layers/line widths.

2. Material Specifications

Substrate Parameters: Dielectric constant (Dk), loss tangent (Df), Tg value (e.g., PTFE substrates).
Copper Foil Type: Electrolytic/rolled copper, surface roughness requirements (e.g., HVLP copper foil).
Special Process Needs: Blind/buried vias, laser drilling, high-frequency hybrid stacking.

3. Electrical & EMC Requirements

Signal Frequency Range: e.g., 2.4GHz/5.8GHz, mark sensitive traces (e.g., RF antenna routing).
Shielding Design: Metalized via walls or localized shielding cans if required.
Voltage/Insulation Standards: e.g., IPC-6012 Class 2/3.

4. Surface Finish & Acceptance Criteria

Surface Treatments: ENIG, Immersion Ag, OSP, etc.
Acceptance Standards: IPC-A-600 visual grade, impedance test tolerance (e.g., ±5%).

5. Other Key Information

Lead Time: Sample/mass production timeline requirements.
Testing Needs: TDR impedance test, RF parameter tests (S-parameters).
Additional Files: Design notes (special process remarks), BOM (if SMT required).

Welcome to contact us if you have any request for high frequency PCB board: sales@bestpcbs.com.

Tags:high frequency pcb
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A Detailed Guide to Multimeter Symbols | PCB Basic

Monday, September 15th, 2025

If you have ever looked at a multimeter for the first time, the dial filled with symbols can look overwhelming. For beginners, these icons are often the most confusing part of the tool. Yet, understanding multimeter symbols is essential. Each symbol tells you what the meter is ready to measure—whether it’s voltage, current, resistance, continuity, or even more advanced functions like capacitance and frequency.

A multimeter is not just for professionals. Home users, electricians, and electronics enthusiasts all rely on it to diagnose problems, test components, and ensure safety in electrical work. If you don’t know what the symbols mean, you risk incorrect measurements or damaging the tool. This guide will walk you through the meanings of each symbol, how to use them step by step, and practical techniques for everyday testing.

A Detailed Guide to Multimeter Symbols | PCB Basic

What Do the Symbols Mean on a Multimeter?

Every multimeter has a rotating dial or digital menu with symbols. These represent the measurement modes. Once you learn them, the multimeter becomes much easier to use. Let’s explore the most common:

Symbol	Function	Notes / Quick Meaning
V~	AC Voltage	Alternating current voltage
V— or VDC	DC Voltage	Direct current voltage
A~	AC Current	Alternating current measurement
A— or ADC	DC Current	Direct current measurement
Ω	Resistance	Measures in ohms
**Diode (▶	—)**	Diode Test
Continuity (🔔 or ~))	Continuity	Beeps if circuit is complete
**		**
Hz	Frequency	AC signal frequency in Hertz
mV	Millivolts	Small voltage measurements
μA / mA	Micro / Milli Amps	Small current ranges
Via Hole	Connection Check	All layer-interconnection testing (for PCBs)

Here is a table make it more clear to understand each symbols in multimeter:

What Do the Symbols Mean on a Multimeter?

How to Use a Multimeter for Beginners?

If you are new to multimeters, don’t worry. Here’s a simple step-by-step approach that applies to most models:

1. Insert the probes correctly. The black lead always goes into the COM (common) port. The red lead goes into the port marked VΩmA for most tests. For high-current measurements, use the dedicated 10A or 20A port.

2. Turn the dial. Select the symbol for what you want to measure. For voltage, choose either AC (V~) or DC (V—). For resistance, use Ω.

3. Connect the probes. Place the tips on the two points of the circuit. For voltage, measure across a component. For current, insert the meter in series. For continuity, simply touch the two ends of the conductor.

4. Read the display. A digital multimeter will give you a number instantly. If the number seems unstable, try switching to another range.

Beginners should practice first on safe, low-voltage circuits. For example, test a battery in DC mode. This builds confidence before working with live AC circuits.

How to Read a Multimeter Display?

Multimeter displays show more than just numbers. Understanding the indicators will improve accuracy.

Numeric Reading: The most obvious part. This is the value you are measuring.

Unit Indicators: A letter or symbol like V, A, or Ω appears beside the reading. It shows what the number represents. Display show V means this value is voltage, A means current, Ω means resistance.

Range Indicators: Some meters show prefixes like m (milli), μ (micro), or k (kilo). For example, 1.2kΩ means 1,200 ohms.

Additional Icons: Many meters have small indicators for functions such as “Hold,” “Battery Low,” or “Auto Range.”

If you use a manual range multimeter, you will also need to match the dial with the expected value. For example, if you measure a 9V battery, set the range above 9V (perhaps 20V). Auto-ranging multimeters save time by picking the correct range for you.

Which is AC and DC in Multimeter?

Multimeters clearly distinguish AC and DC with different symbols:

AC is shown with V~ or A~. The wavy line matches the alternating pattern of AC signals.
DC is shown with V— or A—. The straight and dashed line represents constant flow in one direction.

This distinction is critical. Using the DC mode on an AC outlet, for instance, won’t give you a reliable reading. Worse, it may damage the meter if set incorrectly in current mode. Always confirm the source before selecting AC or DC.

What is a Good Reading for Continuity?

Continuity checks are among the easiest tests with a multimeter. When continuity exists, the resistance is close to zero. A good reading is usually:

0 to 2 ohms: Strong connection.
Beeping sound: Most meters beep when continuity is present.
OL or no reading: This indicates an open circuit, meaning no path for current.

For example, if you test a wire and hear a beep, it means the wire is intact. If there is no sound, the wire is broken. This test is handy for checking fuses, PCB traces, and connectors.

What is One Thing You Should Not Do When Using a Multimeter?

The most important safety rule: never measure resistance on a live circuit. Resistance testing requires the multimeter to send a small current through the circuit. If the circuit is powered, this can damage the meter or give false results.

Other things to avoid:

Don’t exceed the current rating of the meter. Always check the specifications.
Never switch modes while the probes are connected to a live circuit.
Don’t touch probe tips when measuring high voltage.
Safe habits keep both the user and the multimeter protected.

How Do I Know What Setting to Use on a Multimeter?

Choosing the right setting depends on the job. Here are some quick tips:

Battery testing: Use V— (DC voltage).
Outlet testing: Use V~ (AC voltage).
Checking a resistor: Use Ω.
Checking a fuse or wire: Use continuity (buzzer symbol).
Testing a diode or LED: Use the diode mode.

If unsure, always start at the highest range for that setting, then lower it. This prevents overload and protects the meter. Auto-ranging models eliminate this step but it’s still good practice to know.

How to Tell Voltage with a Multimeter?

Voltage is one of the most common tests. Here’s how to measure it:

Set the multimeter to the correct voltage type (AC or DC).
Connect the black probe to COM and red probe to VΩmA.
Place probes across the component or source. For batteries, red goes to positive, black to negative.
Read the display. Digital meters show the value directly; analog meters require reading the needle against the scale.

Voltage readings indicate the potential difference between two points in a circuit. For safety, confirm the voltage rating and type before connecting the probes.

How to Tell if Power is AC or DC with a Multimeter?

If you are unsure about the type of power, a multimeter can help identify it:

Set the meter to AC voltage (V~). Measure the voltage.
If the reading is zero, switch to DC (V—).
If a value appears in DC mode, the circuit uses direct current. If it appears in AC mode, it’s alternating current.

Some multimeters have an auto AC/DC detection feature, showing the type automatically. This is useful for testing unknown sources safely.

For example, household outlets should give a reading in AC mode, while a battery will only show in DC mode. This method is reliable when testing unknown power supplies.

FAQs

1. What is the diode symbol on a multimeter used for?

It is used to test if current flows in one direction, mainly for diodes or LEDs.

2. Can I measure AC voltage on a battery?

No. Batteries provide DC only. The AC mode will show no useful reading.

3. Why is continuity testing important?

It checks if a circuit path is complete. This helps detect broken wires, damaged fuses, or faulty connections.

4. What does “OL” mean on a multimeter?

It stands for “open loop.” It indicates infinite resistance, meaning the circuit is broken.

5. Can I use the same probes for voltage and current tests?

Yes, but for high current, insert the red probe into the dedicated high-current port.

Learning multimeter symbols may seem like a small step, but it unlocks the real power of this tool. Once you know what each symbol means, testing voltage, current, resistance, and continuity becomes second nature. For beginners, starting with low-voltage DC tests is the best way to build confidence. With time, you can handle AC circuits, diodes, capacitors, and even frequency tests.

At Best Technology, we support customers with high-quality testing tools and professional PCB solutions. Our products come with strict quality control under ISO9001, ISO13485 for medical, IATF16949 for automotive, and AS9100D for aerospace standards. By combining competitive pricing, skilled engineering, and traceability through MES systems, we deliver reliable solutions for every customer. Whether you need PCBs or reliable testing tools, we provide everything with precision and care.

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16 Layer PCB Design & Manufacturer, Rapid Prototyping

Friday, September 12th, 2025

What is 16 layer PCB? Let’s discover meaning, stackup structure, thickness, technical parameter, design guide, manufacturing processes for 16 layer PCB.

Are you worried about these problems?

How to solve high-frequency signal crosstalk in 16-layer boards?
Can layer alignment accuracy reach ±0.05mm?
How to achieve 7-day rapid prototyping for complex 16-layer boards?

As a multilayer PCB manufacturer, Best Technology can provide you service and solutions:

Step impedance design and simulation optimization: reducing signal loss by 30%, passing 10Gbps testing.
High Precision Laser drilling: achieving ±0.03mm precision with 99.2% yield.”
Modular panelization + flexible scheduling: enabling 7-day delivery for small batches and 40% shorter mass production cycles.

Welcome to contact us if you have any request for 16 layer PCB: sales@bestpcbs.com.

What Does 16 Layer PCB Mean?

A 16 layer PCB is a multi-layer circuit board fabricated by precisely laminating 16 conductive copper foil layers with dielectric materials. It integrates high-frequency or high-speed substrates (e.g., Rogers 4350B), laser-drilled microvias (HDI), precision impedance-controlled traces (±5% tolerance), and electromagnetic shielding layers.

Through professional stack-up design, it achieves signal-power-ground layer isolation. Main advantages include supporting 56Gbps ultra-high-speed signaling, reducing EMI by 40%, and enabling high-density BGA component placement (10,000+ pins). Primary applications span AI accelerator cards in data centers, 5G mmWave base station modules, and advanced medical imaging systems.

16 Layer PCB Stackup

Top/Bottom Signal Layers: Utilize low-loss materials (e.g., Rogers 4350B) with 5-10mil trace widths, strictly controlled 50Ω±10% impedance, and microstrip structures to minimize signal attenuation for high-speed transmission (e.g., 56Gbps).
Inner High-Speed Signal Layers: Sandwiched between power and ground planes for “signal-power-ground” coupling. 3-5mil dielectric thickness reduces crosstalk and EMI, with 100Ω±10% differential pairs spaced 5-10mil apart.
Power/Ground Planes: 1.2-2.1mil copper thickness, 5-15mil spacing with high-frequency decoupling capacitors (e.g., 100nF/1μF) to optimize power integrity. Ground planes act as EMI shields, reducing common-mode noise.
Dielectric Layers: FR4 (εr=4.2-4.7) or high-speed substrates (e.g., Megtron6) with ±10% thickness uniformity. Glass weave avoids “window effect” for impedance consistency, bonded via prepreg.
Blind/Buried Vias: Laser-drilled HDI vias (0.1-0.2mm diameter) connect inner layers, minimizing via stubs (≤500μm). Back-drilling optimizes signal paths, preventing impedance discontinuity.
Thermal Management: Large copper areas, thermal vias, and heat-conductive materials (e.g., aluminum/copper substrates) dissipate heat. Power components use thermal pads to limit temperature rise ≤20℃.
Symmetric Stack-Up: Balanced layer arrangement (e.g., signal-power-ground-signal) prevents warpage. Zig-zag or 45° routing reduces high-frequency radiation, ensuring manufacturing yield.

How Thick Is a 16 Layer PCB?

The typical thickness of a 16-layer PCB ranges from 1.6mm to 2.4mm, depending on stackup structure, material selection, and application scenarios. For instance, the standard 1.6mm thickness suits most high-density routing needs, while 2.0-2.4mm thicknesses are often used where enhanced mechanical strength or thermal performance is required. Total thickness is determined by the combined thickness of conductive layers, dielectric layers, and prepreg, with precise lamination processes ensuring uniform layer-to-layer consistency.

16-Layer PCB Board Technical Parameter

Technical Parameter	Parameter Value/Range
Layer Count	16 layers
Total Thickness	1.6mm-2.4mm
Copper Foil Thickness	1.2mil-2.1mil
Dielectric Material Type	FR4 (εr=4.2-4.7), High-Speed Materials (e.g., Rogers 4350B, Megtron6)
Dielectric Thickness Uniformity	±10%
Single-Ended Impedance Control	50Ω±10%
Differential Impedance Control	100Ω±10%
Trace Width Range	5mil-10mil
Trace Spacing Range	5mil-10mil
Blind/Buried Via Diameter	0.1mm-0.2mm
Via Stub Length	≤500μm
Surface Finish	ENIG, OSP, Immersion Gold, etc.

How to Design a 16 Layer PCB?

Below is 16 Layer PCB design guide:

1. Requirements Analysis & Planning

Define circuit functional requirements: such as high-speed signal bandwidth (56Gbps), power layer count, impedance control tolerance (±5%).
Determine stackup structure: recommended 4 signal layers / 6 power layers / 6 ground layers (adjustable per application).
Plan key component placement zones: BGA footprints, connectors, and high-pin-count devices.

2. Stackup Structure Design

Use symmetric stackup to prevent warpage: e.g., Top-S1-G1-P1-S2-S3-G2-P2-Core-P3-G3-S4-S5-P4-G4-S6-Bottom.
Position high-speed signals adjacent to ground planes to minimize loop area.
Place power/ground planes adjacent to form interplanar capacitance, reducing voltage ripple.

3. Material Selection

Base material: Low-loss substrates (e.g., Isola FR408HR for controlled impedance).
Copper foil: HVLP (Horizontal Low Profile) for signal layers to reduce skin effect losses.
Board thickness: 2.4mm ±10% (optimized for mechanical stability and thermal dissipation).

4. Rule Setting

Differential pair impedance: Target 100Ω ±10% (verified via TDR testing).
Minimum trace width/spacing: ≥4mil (prevents manufacturing defects).
Blind/buried via scheme: e.g., 1-2 layer laser vias + 2-15 layer mechanical vias.

5. Layout Phase

Prioritize placement of critical components (BGA, power modules).
Position power modules near their respective power planes to minimize IR drop.
Match trace lengths for high-speed signals using serpentine routing.

6. Power Integrity Design

Apply 20H rule (power plane smaller than ground by 20x dielectric thickness) to suppress edge radiation.
Deploy decoupling capacitors per power domain: 0.1μF (high-frequency) + 10μF (bulk) combination.
Avoid plane splits crossing under sensitive signals to prevent noise coupling.

7. Signal Integrity Optimization

Enforce 3W rule (minimum spacing ≥3x trace width) between aggressive/passive traces.
Use serpentine routing for length-sensitive signals (e.g., DDR, PCIe lanes).
Add grounding vias adjacent to signal vias to shield against crosstalk.

8. DFM (Design for Manufacturing) Checks

Validate minimum drill size (≥8mil) for reliable plating.
Ensure copper balance (≥30% copper coverage per layer) to prevent warpage.
Verify solder mask bridge width (≥3mil) to avoid shorts.

9. Production File Output

Generate Gerber 274X files with layer-specific data.
Provide IPC-356 netlist for electrical test validation.
Annotate special processes: back-drilling, via filling/plating.

10. Prototype Testing & Iteration

Perform TDR impedance verification across critical traces.
Measure power rail ripple (≤5% of nominal voltage) under load.
Validate S-parameters using vector network analyzer (VNA) for signal integrity.

How to Make a 16 Layer PCB?

1. Panel Cutting: Raw copper-clad laminates (CCLs) are precision-cut to design dimensions ±0.2mm using automated shearing machines, with ≥5mm process margins reserved for edge handling during subsequent processing.

2. Inner Layer Imaging: Dry film photoresist is laminated, exposed via UV laser direct imaging (LDI) at 5080dpi resolution, developed, and etched to form traces with ±3μm line width tolerance. Post-etch AOI verifies 100% defect coverage (e.g., shorts, opens).

3. Lamination: Prepreg (PP) sheets and copper foils are stacked in symmetric sequence, vacuum-compressed at 175±5℃ under 350±20psi pressure for 120 minutes to ensure void-free bonding and dielectric thickness uniformity ±10%.

4. Drilling: Mechanical drilling uses carbide drills (≥0.15mm diameter) with spindle speed 120kRPM and feed rate 0.5m/min. Laser blind vias (φ0.1mm) are drilled with depth control ±5μm via adaptive laser pulse modulation.

5. Hole Metallization: Chemical copper deposition (0.3-0.5μm) creates conductive seed layer; electroplating thickens hole walls to ≥25μm copper thickness, ensuring reliability per IPC-4761.

6. Outer Layer Imaging: LDI exposure defines outer layer patterns with ±15μm registration accuracy. Pattern plating deposits 40μm ±5% copper thickness, followed by solder mask application (75μm thickness).

7. Special Processes: Back-drilling removes via stubs to <0.15mm length using controlled-depth drilling; resin plugging fills plugged holes with <5% void ratio via vacuum impregnation.

8. Solder Mask & Surface Finish: Spray-coated solder mask (LPISM) is UV-cured; ENIG finish deposits 3-5μm nickel layer and 0.05-0.1μm immersion gold for corrosion protection and solderability.

9. Profiling: CNC routing achieves ±0.1mm dimensional tolerance; V-scoring cuts to 1/3 board thickness ±0.05mm for easy breakout, with scoring depth verified via cross-section microscopy.

10. Testing: Flying probe tests ensure 100% net connectivity; TDR verifies ±7% impedance tolerance; eye diagram analysis confirms signal integrity (e.g., 20% eye opening for 28Gbps signals).

11. Final Inspection: Thermal stress cycles (288℃ solder dip ×3 times) test for delamination; cross-section analysis verifies copper plating thickness, hole fill, and laminate integrity with ≤5% deviation.

12. Packaging: Boards are vacuum-sealed in anti-static bags with silica desiccant, housed in ESD-safe rigid containers for moisture/corrosion protection during transit.

Why Choose Best Technology as 16 Layer PCB Manufacturer?

Reasons why choose us as 16 layer PCB manufacturer:

19+ Years Expertise in 16-Layer PCB Manufacturing: Proven track record of delivering high-complexity PCBs with precision engineering and innovative design solutions, backed by extensive R&D capabilities.
Competitive Pricing Without Compromise: Top-tier quality at industry-leading prices through optimized production processes and bulk material sourcing, ensuring cost efficiency without sacrificing performance.
No MOQ & Flexible Production Scaling: Prototypes, small batches, or mass production—all orders are accommodated with rapid turnaround times, supporting agile product development cycles.
99% On-Time Delivery Guarantee: Rigorous supply chain management and production scheduling ensure deadlines are met, minimizing project delays.
ISO-Certified Quality Systems: Adherence to ISO9001 (quality), ISO13485 (medical), and IATF16949 (automotive) standards, ensuring compliance with global regulatory requirements.
Turnkey Solution: Full-service offerings from DFM (Design for Manufacturing) consultation to PCB assembly, testing, and logistics, streamlining your supply chain.
Advanced Technology & Material Mastery: Expertise in high-speed materials (e.g., Rogers 4350B, Megtron6), HVLP copper foil, and laser microvia technology for superior signal integrity and thermal management.
Stringent Quality Control at Every Stage: Multi-stage inspections including AOI, X-ray drilling verification, and cross-sectional analysis to ensure zero defects and ±3μm line width precision.
Sustainable Manufacturing Practices: Eco-friendly processes (RoHS-compliant materials, waste reduction) and energy-efficient equipment to minimize environmental impact.

Welcome to contact us if you have any request for 16 layer PCB design, prototyping, manufacturing, assembly: sales@bestpcbs.com.

Tags:16 layer PCB, 16 layer PCB board
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What is High Speed DAC Board?

Friday, September 12th, 2025

A high speed DAC board is a critical component in advanced electronics, especially when systems require fast and precise digital-to-analog conversion. The key content of this blog is let you know the meaning, features, main types, design, applications of high speed DAC boards, and the core difference between an ADC and a DAC.

Have you experienced these operational difficulties?

Real challenge of signal integrity?
Major issues of heat dissipation and heat management?
Big trouble with connection and compatibility?
Fundamental problem of cost and maintenance?
Particular obstacle to performance and stability?

These proper solutions effectively tackle the above challenges.

Optimize PCB design and material selection: For example, use high-frequency material and optimize trace layout to enhance design; Adopt high-frequency copper wire and low-loss material to boost signal completeness and thermal dissipation. Besides, use the innovative PCB manufacturing process, such as multilayer board, high frequency board, to improve the integrated performance.

Apply high speed DAC module and modular design: Improving compatibility and maintainability via using high speed DAC modules, high-speed DAC cables.

Elevate thermal dissipation design: For example, adding heat sinks or implementing active cooling technology to address the heat dissipation problem of high speed DAC boards, ensuring stable operation in high loading.

Use high-performance DAC chips and interface solutions: Use chips like AD9122, AD9715, and use interface solutions like ADL5375 I/Q modulator interface to meet transmission needs in high-speed data.

Get technical support and training: It is beneficial to use and maintain highspeed DAC boards, and decrease defect rate and maintenance costs.

As a major PCB manufacturing factory in China, Best Technology has the capability to support customizable design, low batch prototypes, medium manufacturing, mass production, SMT PCBA, and box building. Our factory has a rigorous management system, such as ISO 9001, IATF 16949, AS9100D, and ISO 13485. And you will got our complete inspection with your order, such as high-speed signal inspection, aging test, EMC evaluation, SPI, AOI, X-ray, and others. Pls rest assured that our boards do not have unstable quality or have quality differences between batches. If any new project would like to discuss more details with us, pls get in touch with us at sales@bestpcbs.com or call us at +86-755-2909-1601.

What is a high speed DAC board?

A high speed DAC board is a hardware platform designed to convert digital signals into analog signals at very high speeds. To make it easier for beginners to understand, let’s break it down step by step:

Basic Definition

DAC stands for Digital to Analog Converter. A DAC board integrates the DAC chip with supporting circuits such as power, filtering, clock, and signal conditioning on a single PCB. Its job is simple: turn digital signals (“0” and “1”) into continuous analog signals (voltage or current).

👉 Example: Music files in your phone are digital signals. But headphones and speakers need analog signals. The DAC board does the conversion so you can actually hear the music.

Why “High Speed” DAC Board?

A standard DAC works fine for basic audio or low-speed control. A high speed DAC is built for applications that demand high sampling rates and wide bandwidth, such as radio communication, radar, or satellite systems. It can operate in the MHz or even GHz range, reproducing signals quickly and accurately.

👉 Think of it like this: a regular DAC is a “slow camera” that takes still photos, while a high speed DAC is a “high-speed camera” that captures fast motion in detail.

Main Components of a High Speed DAC Board

A complete high speed DAC board usually contains:

High Speed DAC Chip – the core device that performs the digital-to-analog conversion.
Power Circuit – supplies stable voltage to prevent noise from power fluctuations.
Clock Circuit – provides precise timing to keep signals synchronized and reduce jitter.
Filter Circuit – removes unwanted noise, producing a cleaner output signal.
Signal Conditioning Circuit – amplifies or adjusts the analog output for use in the next stage of the system.

👉 You can think of the DAC chip as the “heart” of the board, while the power, clock, and filter circuits act like the “blood and nervous system” that keep the heart beating smoothly.

Where is it Used?

High speed DAC boards have many important applications:

Audio systems – converting digital audio into analog sound for playback.
Communication equipment – generating signals for base stations and satellites.
Radar systems – creating precise waveforms for detection and tracking.
Test and measurement – producing reference signals for experiments and instruments.

👉 In short: whenever fast and accurate signal conversion is needed, a high speed DAC board is the key solution.

Does DAC affect sound quality?

1. What is an audio DAC?

DAC stands for Digital to Analog Converter.
Its job is to transform digital signals (like the data in an MP3 file) into analog signals (current or voltage) that can drive headphones or speakers.
Without a DAC, digital music files cannot be turned into audible sound.

2. The role of DAC in sound quality

Many people think sound quality only depends on the decoding chip, but the DAC plays a decisive role.
Imagine it this way:
- The DAC is like a singer who turns complex sheet music (digital signals) into a real song (analog signals).
- The headphone amplifier is like a loudspeaker, making the song louder so everyone can hear it.
If the singer (DAC) sings off-key, even the best loudspeaker cannot fix the poor performance.

3. Key factors that influence DAC performance

Conversion accuracy: whether the DAC can faithfully restore the digital signal into analog sound.
Distortion level: how close the output sound is to the original recording. Lower distortion means purer audio.
Noise resistance: whether the DAC can avoid interference from other circuits inside the device.

4. Why do some devices sound worse?

In low-cost music players, the DAC is often integrated together with decoding, power management, and USB control in one chip.
This situation is like a singer having to share a small room with chefs, cleaners, and IT staff—there’s too much noise and distraction, so the performance suffers.

5. How to achieve better sound quality?

The best way is to give the DAC its own “luxury room,” meaning to use a dedicated audio codec chip.
A codec usually integrates a high-quality DAC, a headphone amplifier, tone controls, and digital filters.
A standalone DAC delivers cleaner, richer, and more detailed sound, which makes a clear difference for music lovers.

In conclusion, the DAC does affect sound quality. A DAC determines how accurately digital music is converted into analog signals that we can hear. If the conversion is precise and has low distortion, the sound will be clear, detailed, and natural. On the other hand, a poor DAC may cause noise, distortion, or a flat sound. In short, a better DAC means better sound quality, especially when paired with a good amplifier and headphones.

What are the features of high and low ADC?

When talking about an ADC (Analog to Digital Converter), the main difference between high-speed and low-speed types lies in their design focus. Here are the key points:

1. Conversion Speed (Sampling Rate)

High-Speed ADCs: Work at sampling rates in the MSPS (Mega Samples per Second) range, and some even reach GSPS (Giga Samples per Second). They are used for real-time processing of high-frequency signals in areas like communication, radar, and oscilloscopes.
Low-Speed ADCs: Typically operate in the kSPS (Kilo Samples per Second) range. They trade speed for lower power consumption, making them suitable for low-frequency or periodic measurements such as sensors and wearables.

2. Power Characteristics

High-Speed ADCs: Consume more power because of high-frequency clocks and complex circuit structures. Power consumption can reach hundreds of milliwatts, with noticeable heat generation.
Low-Speed ADCs: Designed for efficiency, often using simplified architectures like SAR or Sigma-Delta. Power can be reduced to the microwatt level, which is ideal for battery-powered devices.

3. Resolution and Noise

High-Speed ADCs: Resolution is usually 8 to 14 bits. The fast conversion speed can introduce higher levels of noise.
Low-Speed ADCs: Can achieve 16 to 24 bits resolution, with a focus on minimizing noise and improving accuracy.

4. Typical Applications

High-Speed ADCs: Found in 5G communication systems, medical imaging (like MRI), and high-speed data acquisition instruments such as oscilloscopes.
Low-Speed ADCs: Commonly used in IoT sensors (temperature, humidity), portable devices (smartwatches), and industrial monitoring systems.

5. Architecture Differences

High-Speed ADCs: Often use Pipeline or Flash architectures, which boost speed through parallel processing.
Low-Speed ADCs: Usually adopt SAR (Successive Approximation Register) or Sigma-Delta architectures, balancing low power with high resolution.

In summary, high-speed ADCs prioritize speed, supporting real-time, high-frequency data capture. While low-speed ADCs focus on low power and high precision, making them better for long-term, low-energy applications.

What are the working principle of high speed DAC board?

1. Basic Function of a DAC

A DAC (Digital to Analog Converter) converts digital signals into analog signals.
Simply put, a DAC acts like a “decoder,” turning the 0s and 1s in digital devices into continuous voltages or currents.
The smallest change in the digital input corresponds to a change in analog output called the Least Significant Bit (LSB).

What are the working principle of high speed DAC board?

2. How a DAC Works

DACs use various methods to convert digital input into analog output.
One common approach is the weighted resistor DAC:
- The circuit consists of weighted resistors, bit-switching controls, a feedback resistor, and an operational amplifier.
- The binary input controls the switches, allowing current through the resistors to generate corresponding voltages.
- The output voltage is the weighted sum of all bits. As the digital value changes, the analog voltage changes accordingly.
Example: A 4-bit DAC (D3–D0) produces 16 voltage levels. Adding more bits increases resolution; an 8-bit DAC can generate 256 levels.

3. Binary Weighting Principle

An n-bit binary number is represented as D = dₙ₋₁dₙ₋₂…d₁d₀, where MSB (Most Significant Bit) has the highest weight, and LSB (Least Significant Bit) has the lowest.
Each bit is converted into an analog voltage according to its weight, and the sum of these voltages becomes the final output.
The output voltage is proportional to the input digital number, with a conversion factor usually denoted as k.

This equation shows how each bit contributes to the final analog output voltage, making the DAC conversion precise and predictable.

4. Output Resolution and Step Voltage

The DAC’s output appears as a series of steps, each corresponding to a digital input value.
More input bits mean smaller step sizes, a smoother output curve, and higher conversion accuracy.
Example: A 3-bit DAC outputs voltages from 0V to 7V in 8 steps. More bits result in finer steps, making the analog output closer to a continuous signal.

In a nutshell, the working principle of a high-speed DAC board is to convert digital signals into analog signals using a weighted sum of bits, while high-speed optimization and supporting circuits ensure fast, stable, and precise output for demanding applications.

What is the difference between an ADC and a DAC?

ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) and DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter) are two common types of converters in digital signal processing. Their main differences are as follows:

Function:
An ADC converts a continuous analog signal into its corresponding digital representation, transforming continuous variations in voltage, current, or other analog quantities into discrete digital codes. A DAC, on the other hand, converts digital signals into corresponding analog signals, transforming discrete digital codes into analog voltages or currents.
Direction:
An ADC is an analog-to-digital converter, converting analog signals into digital data. A DAC is a digital-to-analog converter, converting digital data into analog signals.
Input/Output:
The input of an ADC is an analog signal, usually a continuously varying voltage or current, and its output is the corresponding digital code. The input of a DAC is digital data, usually discrete binary codes, and its output is the corresponding analog signal, such as voltage or current.
Applications:
ADCs are widely used for acquiring data from analog sensors (such as temperature sensors, light sensors, etc.), audio signal processing, digital communications, and more. DACs are mainly used in audio signal synthesis, digital audio processing, image generation, and other fields.
Resolution:
Both ADCs and DACs have a performance metric called resolution, which indicates the precision of the numerical representation. For an ADC, resolution represents the number of bits of the digital output. For a DAC, resolution represents the number of bits of the digital input.

To sum up, ADCs and DACs are inverse processes: one converts analog signals into digital signals, while the other converts digital signals back into analog signals. They play crucial roles in signal processing and communication and are often used together in systems where analog signals are converted to digital form, processed digitally, and then converted back to analog.

What are the main types of DAC board?

High-speed DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter) boards can be categorized based on their architecture and output type:

1. Based on Architecture

Current-Steering DAC:
This type converts digital signals into analog current outputs by controlling the switch states of multiple current sources. It features high speed (up to GHz) and wide dynamic range, making it suitable for high-frequency applications such as communications and radar.
R-2R Ladder DAC:
This type uses a ladder network of resistors arranged in R and 2R values. It has a simple structure and is easy to integrate, but its speed is relatively lower. It is commonly used in medium- to low-speed, high-precision applications, such as audio processing.

2. Based on Output Type

Voltage Output DAC:
This DAC directly outputs an analog voltage signal. An external buffer amplifier is usually required to drive the load. It is suitable for applications that demand high voltage stability, such as industrial control.
Current Output DAC:
This DAC outputs an analog current signal, which can be converted to voltage through a load resistor. It offers low output impedance and low power consumption, making it common in high-speed communication and RF systems.

3. Other Special Types

Σ-Δ (Sigma-Delta) DAC:
By using oversampling and noise shaping, this type achieves high resolution (e.g., 24-bit) and wide dynamic range, though its speed is relatively lower. It is mainly used in audio devices.
PWM (Pulse-Width Modulation) DAC:
This DAC outputs analog signals by modulating the pulse width. It has a simple structure but requires additional filtering. It is often used in motor control and LED dimming applications.

All in all, the core types of high-speed DAC boards include current-steering and R-2R architectures, as well as voltage and current output forms. Choosing the right type requires balancing speed, precision, and power consumption requirements.

How to do High speed DAC design?

Designing high-speed DAC boards requires careful consideration of layout, signal integrity, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) management. The following best practices help optimize performance:

1. Use Multilayer PCBs with Solid Ground and Power Planes
High-speed DACs achieve the best signal integrity on multilayer boards with continuous ground and power planes. Connect exposed pads (EPs) directly to solid ground planes to minimize impedance and noise.

2. Maintain Continuous Inner Ground Planes in Analog Regions
Keep analog sections’ inner ground planes uninterrupted, with minimal gaps. Use staggered vias with small pad diameters to reduce openings. Position solid ground layers beneath key components to stabilize signals.

3. Plan Layer Assignments for Different Signals
Carefully assign input and output signals to specific layers:

Analog inputs on one layer
Digital outputs on another
Clock signals on a dedicated layer
Whenever possible, sandwich each signal layer between two ground planes or use microstrip routing to minimize noise.

4. Pair Power and Ground Layers
Place power layers adjacent to ground planes to reduce inductance and overall noise. If power traces are needed, make them wide enough to minimize voltage drop and inductance.

5. Optimize Ground and Power Connections with Multiple Vias
Use multiple vias (recommended 18mil diameter) for GND and VDD connections. Exposed pads should connect to the same ground plane. For low-inductance grounding, a grid of vias is often used. For example, Maxim recommends a 5×5 matrix (25 vias of 13mil diameter) or at least 12 vias.

6. Minimize Impedance Around Bypass and Critical Capacitors
Keep traces connecting bypass and critical capacitors wide (≥10mil) to reduce impedance and inductance. If components are not above a ground plane, ensure ground traces remain as wide as possible, including thermal pads connected to ground.

7. Use Thermal Pads Strategically
For components with thermal pads, connect each bypass capacitor using two thermal pads, each with a via to ground to reduce inductance. Place capacitors as close as possible to the DAC or ADC to limit parasitic effects.

8. Separate High-Speed Digital Signals from Sensitive Analog Traces
Route high-speed digital signals away from analog lines, clock traces, and other sensitive circuitry to reduce EMI.

9. Keep Signal Traces Short and Avoid 90° Bends
Minimize trace length and avoid sharp corners to reduce reflections and impedance discontinuities.

10. Maintain Symmetry in Differential Networks
Ensure differential analog inputs have a symmetric layout. Keep parasitic networks balanced to maintain signal integrity.

11. Place Bypass Capacitors Close to Components
Surface-mount all bypass capacitors as close as possible to the device, preferably on the same side of the PCB as the DAC or ADC, to reduce inductance.

12. Consider Separate Analog and Digital Power Supplies
Some devices perform better with isolated analog and digital supplies to reduce crosstalk and noise.

13. Use Ground Islands for Isolation
In multi-device designs, use ground “islands” to isolate DAC circuits from neighboring components or other ADC/DAC sections to prevent interference.

What are the applications of high speed DACs?

DACs have a wide range of applications in everyday life and various electronic devices. The main application areas include:

Audio Equipment
DACs are widely used in audio devices such as speakers, headphones, and MP3 players. They convert digital audio signals into analog audio signals, producing corresponding sound. Thanks to DACs, we can enjoy high-quality music.
Communication Systems
In wireless communication systems, digital signals must be converted into analog signals for transmission. DACs play a key role in devices such as modems and digital walkie-talkies. They convert digital signals into analog signals, which are then sent to the receiver for decoding.
Industrial Control and Instrumentation
DACs are widely applied in industrial automation and measurement instruments. For example, measurement devices often collect data in digital form, but some industrial processes require continuously varying analog signals for control. DACs convert digital data into analog signals, adjusting output voltage to achieve precise control.
Medical Equipment
DACs play a crucial role in medical devices. For instance, electrocardiogram (ECG) machines use DACs to convert digital signals into analog signals to record the heart’s electrical activity. Blood pressure monitors, ventilators, and anesthesia machines also rely on DACs for signal conversion.
Automotive Electronics
Many modern automotive electronic systems, such as in-car audio, navigation systems, and dashboards, use DACs. They convert digital signals into analog signals, which are then amplified and sent to speakers or display panels, providing drivers with audio and visual information.

In closing, DACs are extensively used in audio equipment, communication systems, industrial control, medical devices, and automotive electronics. By converting digital signals into analog form, DACs enhance our audio experience and ensure high-quality communication and control systems in daily life and work.

What are the applications of high speed DACs?

Where to get Best high speed DAC board?

When looking for high-speed DAC boards, customers are most concerned about several key factors. Best Technology provides professional assurance in all of these areas:

Industry Experience and Expertise
Best Technology has nearly two decades of extensive experience in high-speed DAC design and manufacturing. We specialize in high-speed signal integrity optimization, EMI management, and high-frequency PCB layout and power management, providing high-performance solutions tailored to customer needs.
Product Stability and Reliability
Best Technology DAC boards undergo rigorous testing. Even under long-term operation, they maintain stable outputs and high-precision performance, making them suitable for industrial, communication, and audio applications.
Technical Support and Engineering Services
Best Technology offers full engineering support, including PCB layout optimization, design advice, and customized solutions. We also provide design references, evaluation boards, and samples to help customers verify performance before purchase.
Customization Capability
Best Technology can customize high-speed DAC boards according to specific customer requirements, including voltage or current outputs, different package types, and optimization for communication, radar, audio, and other applications.
Flexible Supply Options
Best Technology supports both large- and small-volume production, ensuring timely and stable delivery to meet diverse customer demands.
Quality Assurance and Documentation
Best Technology provides complete test reports, product certifications, and a quality assurance system. We have a comprehensive quality management system and holds authoritative certifications, including ISO9001, ISO13485, IATF16949, and AS9100D. These certifications ensure that we meet international standards in design, production, and quality control, delivering reliable high-speed DAC boards to our customers.

To wrap up, a high speed DAC board is not just a piece of hardware—it is the foundation of accurate and high-performance digital-to-analog conversion. If you are interested in the high speed DAC board, pls reach out to Best Technology at sales@bestpcbs.com for the BEST support.

Tags:high speed DAC board
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Design Guide for High Speed Controlled Impedance Circuit Boards

Friday, September 12th, 2025

How to design high speed circuit boards? Let’s discover design guidelines, impedance control technical parameter, layout guide, impedance matching and verification for high speed circuit boards.

Are you worried about these problems?

Impedance out of control causing eye diagram collapse?
Differential pair spacing exceeding ±2mil?
Simulation vs. measurement discrepancy >5%?

As a high speed circuit boards manufacturer, Best Technology can provide you service and solution:

Free DFM analysis + precise impedance design: Achieve 50Ω single-ended ±10% and 100Ω differential ±10% on first pass.
24-hour rapid response: Provide manufacturability optimization feedback based on Gerber files, reducing trial production losses by 30%.
Full-chain verification: Identify via stubs, bends, and other defects early via TDR/eye diagram analysis, accelerating mass production ramp-up.

Welcome to contact us if you have any request for high speed circuit boards: sales@bestpcbs.com.

High Speed Circuit Boards Design Guidelines

Below are high speed circuit boards design guidelines:

1. Manufacturability Requirements

Specify board thickness (e.g., 1.6mm), copper thickness (e.g., 1oz), and surface finish (e.g., ENIG).
Define SMD/through-hole pad dimensions, solder mask openings, and stencil specifications.
Verify impedance control parameters through production testing (e.g., TDR measurements).
Reserve test points for high-speed interfaces (e.g., HDMI, PCIe) to facilitate debugging.

2. Multilayer Stackup Structure

Use a minimum of 4-layer structure, with 6 or more layers recommended for optimal performance.
Implement continuous ground and power planes to minimize signal return path discontinuities.
Select low-loss dielectric materials (e.g., FR4 for cost-effectiveness, Teflon for ultra-high-speed applications).
Document stackup specifications including board thickness (typically 1.6mm), copper weight (e.g., 1oz), and blind/buried via requirements in design files.

3. Component Placement Strategy

Prioritize placement of high-speed signal transmitters/receivers near their respective signal paths.
Adopt grid-based layouts to minimize signal trace lengths and cross-talk risks.
Position decoupling capacitors within 0.2mm of power pins to suppress power noise.
Keep critical components at least 3mm away from board edges and connectors to avoid mechanical stress and EMI interference.

4. Impedance Control Implementation

Design all high-speed traces to target impedance (typically 50Ω single-ended, 100Ω differential).
Ensure traces reference a continuous ground plane—top/bottom layers use single-sided referencing, inner layers use dual-sided.
Avoid crossing plane splits or board edges to maintain consistent impedance and reduce signal reflections.
Maintain strict parallelism and same-layer routing for differential pairs to ensure coupling integrity.

5. Signal Routing Specifications

Replace 90° bends with 135° bends to reduce capacitance discontinuities.
Maintain trace spacing ≥3× line width (3W rule) to minimize cross-talk.
Control intra-pair and inter-pair length mismatches to ≤500μm for high-speed signals.
Use serpentine traces only in length-mismatch regions to equalize delays without introducing noise.
Avoid long stubs; prefer daisy-chain topologies for signal integrity.

6. Noise Suppression Measures

Apply termination resistors (source or load) to match transmission line impedance.
Cover high-speed signal regions with ground planes to shield against EMI.
Implement π-type filters on power rails to suppress high-frequency noise.
Minimize ground loop area to reduce inductive coupling and radiated emissions.

7. Via and Interconnect Design

Limit via counts on high-speed paths to reduce parasitic capacitance/inductance.
Place ground/power vias adjacent to component pads for low-impedance connections.
For BGA packages, use Via-in-Pad with filled vias to minimize pad size and improve thermal management.
Ensure vias reference adjacent ground planes to maintain return path continuity.

8. Design Rule Documentation

Define differential pair parameters (e.g., pair spacing, trace width), routing topologies, and length tolerances.
Include manufacturing annotations such as impedance-controlled trace widths/spacing and stackup details.
Add ≥3 optical fiducial markers for precise assembly alignment.
Adhere to IPC Class 3 standards for reliability in high-performance applications.

9. Simulation and Validation Workflow

Annotate high-speed signal constraints (e.g., impedance, length) in schematics.
Perform pre-layout signal integrity simulations (TDR for impedance, eye diagrams for signal quality).
Validate return path continuity through ground plane checks.
Compare crosstalk models with actual layouts to identify and mitigate coupling issues.

High Speed Circuit Boards Design Guidelines

High Speed Circuit Boards Impedance Control Design Technical Parameter

Parameter	Value Range/Requirements
Single-Ended Signal Impedance	50Ω ±10% (typical)
Differential Signal Impedance	100Ω ±10% (per leg) or 90Ω ±10%
Special Interface Impedance	75Ω (analog video), 85Ω (custom interfaces)
Trace Width (W)	5-10mil (single-ended); 6-16mil (differential)
Trace Spacing (S)	≥3× trace width (3W rule); differential spacing 5-10mil
Differential Pair Spacing	Strict parallel, same-layer routing, tolerance ≤±2mil
Board Thickness (H)	1.6mm ±10% (standard); 0.8-3.0mm (custom)
Copper Thickness (T)	0.5oz (17μm), 1oz (35μm), 2oz (70μm)
Dielectric Thickness (H1/H2)	Microstrip: signal-to-reference distance; stripline: core/prepreg thickness
Dielectric Constant (Dk)	FR4: 4.2-4.7 (typical 4.4); high-frequency materials (e.g., Rogers): 3.5-4.0
Loss Tangent (tanδ)	FR4: 0.015-0.025; low-loss materials: ≤0.005
Reference Plane Continuity	Continuous ground/power plane under signal traces; avoid splits
Ground Shield Design	Ground trace ≥20mil wide, 6mil spacing, via every 400mil
Shield Ground Distance	≥35mil from differential signals (≥20mil in special cases)
Via Count Limitation	Minimize vias on high-speed paths; use backdrilling if needed (stub length ≤10% board thickness)
Via Reference Plane	Adjacent to ground plane for continuous return path
Solder Mask Thickness	0.6±0.2mil, dielectric constant 3.5±0.3
Surface Finish	ENIG, HASL, etc.; evaluate impact on impedance
Impedance Measurement	TDR testing, tolerance ±5% to ±10%
Simulation Verification	Signal integrity simulation, TDR/eye diagram analysis
Trace Bend Angle	135° or radius transition; avoid 90° right angles
Length Matching Accuracy	Differential pair length mismatch ≤500μm (±3mil)
Crosstalk Control	≥3× trace width spacing; prefer daisy-chain topology

Ground Plane Impedance Management Techniques for High Speed Board

Mandatory Standards for Ground Plane Continuity

All ground planes beneath high-speed signal paths must remain intact without mechanical segmentation. For unavoidable digital/analog ground segmentation, use 0603-sized 0Ω resistors to bridge gaps with spacing ≤3mm, ensuring a low-impedance path ≤10mΩ.

Quantitative Layout Specifications for Via Arrays

Each high-speed signal via must be surrounded by four symmetrically placed ground vias in a rhombus array, with spacing strictly controlled at 2.5–3mm. For differential pairs, adopt an “8-12” array (8 signal vias paired with 12 ground vias) to maintain coupling coefficients ≥0.8.

Copper Thickness-Frequency Mapping Table

Establish a direct correlation between copper thickness and signal frequency: ≤500MHz uses 1oz copper; 500MHz–2GHz uses 1.5oz copper; ≥2GHz requires 2oz copper. Measurements confirm 2oz copper reduces 1GHz ground impedance by 35% and temperature rise by 40%.

3D Layout Method for Decoupling Capacitors

Within 3mm of IC power pins, implement “capacitor stacking”: place 100μF electrolyytic capacitors on the bottom layer and 0.1μF/0.01μF ceramic capacitors on the top layer. Ground terminals connect to the ground plane via ≥6 vias with spacing ≤1mm.

Length Control Standards for Ground Paths

Ground path lengths for critical signals (e.g., DDR clocks) must be ≤1/20 of the signal wavelength. Validate with TDR measurements, ensuring path length errors within ±0.5mm and ground impedance ≤5mΩ.

Compensation Capacitor Matrix for Segmented Areas

For digital/analog ground segmentation zones, deploy two 100nF/50V X7R capacitors per 100mm² area. Install capacitors in “back-to-back” configuration with connection points straddling segmentation seams, creating equivalent capacitance ≥200nF.

Closed-Loop Impedance Measurement & Optimization

Measure ground impedance from 1kHz to 3GHz using a network analyzer. For out-of-spec frequencies (e.g., >10mΩ), apply localized copper thickening (to 3oz) or add 1–2 10μF tantalum capacitors. Re-test after optimization to ensure smooth impedance curves without peaks.

Integrated Thermal-Ground Design Template

For components with power >1W, implement a 2oz copper heat dissipation zone beneath the device. Connect to ground plane via ≥4 thermal vias (diameter ≥0.3mm) filled with conductive silver paste, ensuring thermal resistance ≤15°C/W.

Ground Plane Impedance Management Techniques for High Speed Board

Impedance Control Design Strategies for High Speed Circuit Boards

Standardized Stackup Structure Design Process

Enforce a 6-layer architecture: “Signal-Ground-Power-Signal-Power-Ground” with dielectric constant strictly controlled at 4.2±0.2 and copper thickness 1.4mil.
Use ANSYS SIwave for interlayer coupling capacitance simulation, generating impedance error heatmaps for 50Ω paths. Error ≤±5% must cover ≥90% of critical paths.
Material thickness locked at 8-10mil; verify copper thickness uniformity (±0.2mil) and layer alignment accuracy ≤50μm via microsection analysis.

3D Quantitative Specifications for Differential Pair Routing

All high-speed differential pairs must follow “6mil trace width/6mil spacing” tight coupling standard, with differential impedance controlled at 100±10Ω.
Via stub length hard-limited to ≤5mil; validate via TDR measurements to ensure crosstalk coefficient ≤3% between differential pairs.
At layer transitions, enforce “ground via arrays”: 4 symmetrically placed ground vias (spacing 2.5-3mm) around each signal via.

Closed-Loop Verification via Impedance Calculation Toolchain

Use Polar SI9000 for impedance calculation: input material parameters (Dk=4.2, Df=0.015) to generate impedance curves.
For critical paths, implement dual “measured-calculated” validation: TDR-measured impedance vs. calculated curves. Trigger design iteration if error >±8% (max 2 iterations).

3D Quantitative Standards for Decoupling Capacitor Placement

Within 3mm of CPU/FPGA power pins, implement “capacitor stacking”: bottom-layer 100μF electrolyytic + top-layer 0.1μF ceramic capacitors.
Each capacitor connects to ground via ≥6 vias (spacing ≤1mm), achieving ≤5mΩ ground impedance.
Enforce 40dB power noise suppression ratio, validated via spectrum analyzer measurements.

Standardized Design Specifications for Impedance Test Points

Deploy SMA-connector test points on critical paths (e.g., DDR/PCIe) with spacing ≤50mm.
Validate 1GHz impedance via network analyzer: error ≤±5Ω; auto-generate and archive test reports.
Material Selection and Process Binding Execution Details
For signals ≤2GHz: FR4 (Dk=4.2); ≥2GHz: RO4350B (Dk=3.48).
Material thickness controlled at 8-10mil; verify copper uniformity (±0.2mil) via microsection.
High-speed signal vias require backdrilling: stub length ≤3mil, validated via X-ray inspection.

Automated DRC Enforcement for Routing Rules

Use Altium Designer DRC: enforce 4mil/4mil min trace/space and ≤5mil via stubs.
For critical paths, enable “serpentine delay difference” checks to ensure signal delay difference ≤5ps; auto-generate DRC reports.

Execution Standards for Power Integrity Co-Design

PDN design must include decoupling capacitor layout diagrams + power plane segmentation specs.
For noisy areas (e.g., CPU vicinity), implement “power plane voiding + filter capacitors” to suppress noise ≤100mV.

Closed-Loop Impedance Validation Process

After simulation, prototype PCBs and measure impedance.
For out-of-spec points (e.g., >55Ω), apply localized copper thickening (to 2oz) or add capacitors; re-test until compliant.

DFM Binding Execution Details

Provide IPC-6012-compliant DFM reports including min annular ring, drill parameters, and solder mask dimensions.
High-speed signal vias require backdrilling (stub ≤3mil), validated via X-ray inspection.

Impedance Control Design Strategies for High Speed Circuit Boards

A Practical Guide to High Speed Printed Circuit Board Layout

1. Component Placement Priority

Place high-speed signal drivers/receivers (e.g., SERDES chips, RF amplifiers) within 5mm of connectors/signal entry points to minimize trace length.
Keep sensitive analog/high-speed sections ≥3mm from board edges and mechanical stress zones (e.g., mounting holes) to prevent EMI leakage and physical damage.

2. Grid-Based Routing System

Use 50-100mil grid spacing for component alignment to standardize trace paths and reduce cross-talk.
Replace 90° bends with 135° arcs or smooth curves in high-speed traces to minimize capacitance discontinuities (e.g., for DDR/PCIe signals).

3. Decoupling Capacitor Strategy

Position 0.1μF ceramic capacitors within 0.2mm of high-speed IC power pins; use 10μF bulk capacitors within 5mm for broadband noise suppression.
Connect capacitors directly to ground via low-impedance paths (≤1mm trace length) with dedicated ground vias.

4. Controlled Impedance Routing

Route high-speed signals (e.g., HDMI, USB3.0) with 50Ω single-ended/100Ω differential impedance, using trace widths/spacing calculated via EDASoft Impedance Calculator.
Limit high-speed path vias to ≤2 per signal; use backdrilling for stubs >500μm to reduce reflections.

5. Differential Pair Precision

Maintain differential pair spacing ≤±2mil with strict parallelism on the same layer (e.g., for Ethernet/LVDS).
Use serpentine meandering only for length compensation (≤500μm mismatch), with loops perpendicular to signal flow to minimize coupling noise.

6. Ground Plane Integrity

Implement continuous copper ground planes beneath high-speed signal traces (layer-specific, e.g., Layer 2 for top-layer signals).
Avoid splitting ground planes under high-speed traces; use moats (cut planes) only with bypass capacitors for isolation.

7. Thermal Management Integration

Position high-power components (e.g., power regulators) away from high-speed sections by ≥10mm.
Use thermal vias (≥5 vias per pad) for BGA/QFN packages, ensuring via spacing ≥0.8mm to avoid signal integrity degradation.

8. Board Edge Clearance & Shielding

Maintain ≥3mm clearance between high-speed traces and board edges/connectors.
Add ground stitching vias (spacing ≤5mm) along board edges with 20mil ground traces spaced 6mil from signals for EMI containment.

9. Length Matching & Tolerance Control

Ensure intra-pair/inter-pair length mismatches ≤500μm (±3mil) for high-speed signals (e.g., DDR4 DQ groups).
Use meandering in non-critical sections only, with loop width ≥3× trace width to avoid noise injection.

10. Isolation & Shielding Techniques

Surround high-speed signal regions with ground traces (≥20mil width) spaced 6mil from signals, adding ground vias every 400mil.
Isolate analog/digital sections using moats (cut ground planes) with 10nF bypass capacitors to prevent noise coupling.

A Practical Guide to High Speed Printed Circuit Board Layout

Signal Path Impedance Matching Practices in High Speed Circuit Boards

1. Precise Target Impedance Setting

Single-ended signals adopt a standardized 50Ω±10% impedance, suitable for high-speed digital scenarios such as DDR control lines and clock signals.
Differential pairs use 100Ω±10% (per leg) or 90Ω±10% impedance to match standards like HDMI, USB, and PCIe.
Special interfaces (e.g., analog video) require 75Ω impedance, while custom interfaces adjust to 85Ω or other values based on device specifications.

2. Refined Trace Parameter Control

Single-ended trace widths are controlled between 5-10mil, and differential pair widths between 6-16mil. Exact values are determined via EDA tools considering board thickness, copper weight, and dielectric constant.
Trace spacing follows the 3W Rule (≥3× trace width), with differential pairs maintaining strict parallelism and same-layer routing at 5-10mil spacing, tolerance ≤±2mil to prevent impedance mismatch.

3. Reference Plane Continuity Assurance

A continuous ground/power plane is laid beneath high-speed signal traces, single-sided referencing for top/bottom layers, dual-sided for inner layers.
Crossing plane splits or board edges is prohibited to avoid impedance discontinuities. Vias must be adjacent to ground planes for return path continuity.
High-speed paths limit vias to ≤2 per signal, using backdrilling to reduce stub length (≤10% board thickness).

4. Matching Resistor Application Strategy

Series resistors (e.g., 50Ω for single-ended, 100Ω for differential) are added at source or termination points to minimize signal reflections.
TDR testing validates impedance tolerances of ±5% to ±10%, ensuring measured values align with design targets.

5. Material and Stackup Optimization

Low-loss dielectric materials are selected (e.g., FR4 with Dk 4.2-4.7, Rogers high-frequency materials with Dk 3.5-4.0).
Parameters like board thickness (1.6mm±10%), copper weight (0.5oz/1oz/2oz), and stackup details are optimized for impedance control.
Microstrip lines require precise signal-to-reference distance, while striplines adjust core/prepreg thickness via documented stackup specifications.

6. Dual Validation via Simulation and Measurement

Pre-layout signal integrity simulations (e.g., HyperLynx, ADS) analyze impedance continuity and timing characteristics through TDR/eye diagram tests.
Production samples undergo TDR measurements to verify impedance meets ±5% to ±10% tolerance, ensuring design-manufacturing consistency.

7. Noise Shielding and Interference Mitigation

Ground planes shield high-speed signal regions, while π-type filters suppress power rail noise.
Critical components are surrounded by ground traces (≥20mil width, 6mil spacing) with ground vias every 400mil, forming a Faraday cage to enhance noise immunity.
Ground loop area is minimized to reduce electromagnetic interference.

Impedance Consistency Verification for High Speed Circuit Boards

1. Physical Verification of Stackup Structure

Use microsection measurements to verify per-layer copper thickness (error ≤ ±0.2mil) and dielectric constant (4.2±0.2).
Inspect layer alignment accuracy via X-ray (≤50μm) to ensure 50Ω impedance path error ≤ ±5%. Generate heatmaps to visualize error distribution across critical paths.

2. On-Board Differential Pair Impedance Validation

Perform TDR measurements to validate differential pair impedance (100±10Ω), while simultaneously checking via stub length (≤3mil) and crosstalk coefficient (≤3%).
Test points spaced ≤50mm automatically generate impedance curves compared with simulation results. Trigger design iteration if error exceeds ±8%.

3. Power Distribution Network Noise Measurement

Within 3mm of CPU/FPGA power pins, use a spectrum analyzer to measure power noise (≤100mV). Verify decoupling capacitor layout (100μF electrolyytic + 0.1μF ceramic) and ground impedance (≤5mΩ) to ensure noise suppression ratio ≥40dB.

4. Ground System Continuity Testing

Measure ground plane impedance (1kHz-3GHz) using a network analyzer, ensuring critical areas ≤10mΩ.
For digital/analog ground segmentation, use 0603-sized 0Ω resistors with spacing ≤3mm to bridge gaps, and verify bridging impedance ≤10mΩ.

5. Standardized Impedance Test Point Validation

Deploy SMA-connector test points on critical paths (e.g., DDR/PCIe) with spacing ≤50mm. Use a network analyzer to measure 1GHz impedance error ≤±5Ω. Automatically generate and archive test reports for traceable verification records.

6. Material & Process Consistency Checks

For signals ≤2GHz, verify FR4 dielectric constant at 4.2±0.2; for ≥2GHz, use RO4350B with Dk=3.48±0.1. Inspect high-speed signal vias via X-ray to confirm backdrilling quality (stub length ≤3mil) for process consistency.

7. Automated DRC Validation for Routing Rules

Use Altium Designer DRC to enforce min trace/space (4mil/4mil) and via stub limits (≤5mil). For critical paths, measure serpentine delay difference (≤5ps) and auto-generate DRC reports linked to design data for closed-loop validation.

8. Thermal-Electrical Co-Design Verification

Measure thermal resistance (≤15°C/W) under power devices with 2oz copper cooling zones.
Verify ground impedance (≤5mΩ) of thermal vias (diameter ≥0.3mm) filled with conductive silver paste to prevent local hotspots from causing impedance fluctuations.

9. EMC Pre-Compliance & On-Board Testing

After shielding high-frequency clock lines with ground planes (width ≥3mm), measure radiated noise ≤20dB at 1GHz. Test 5mm-wide ground isolation belts around switching power supplies for shielding effectiveness ≥20dB using near-field scanners to ensure regulatory compliance.

10. Closed-Loop Verification for Design Changes

Post-stackup/impedance modifications, use ANSYS SIwave to simulate impedance error ≤±5% and critical path delay change ≤2ps. Ensure measured data aligns with simulation results within 15% error margin, creating a traceable “design-validate-optimize” loop for quantifiable change impacts.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this guide covers high speed circuit boards impedance control, from design rules to simulation validation. For 5G/AI/mmWave applications requiring ±3% tolerance, Best Technology delivers precision with laser etching (<0.5mil). Contact us for a free impedance review and DFM analysis today: sales@bestpcbs.com.

Tags:High Speed Circuit Boards, High Speed Circuit Boards Design
Posted in best pcb, bestpcb, Design Guide, Special PCB | No Comments »

What is Printed Circuit Board High Speed?

Thursday, September 11th, 2025

Printed circuit board high speed design is at the heart of today’s advanced electronics. The blog presents points about meaning, features, material, design, manufacturing process, applications of high speed PCB board, and where to get best printed circuit board high speed.

Have you encountered these challenges in your experience?

The tricky problem of signal integrity?
The increasing complexity for design and the increasing cost?
Increasing difficulty of manufacture and inspection?
Unstable performance and reliability problem?

To resolve the difficulties presented, kindly consider the following methods.

Optimize the design and layout: For example, boost PCB stacked structure, layout, and impedance control to elevate signal completeness.
Adopt cutting-edge manufacturing process: Use high precision manufacturing process, such as micro via design, back-drilling technology, in order to decrease signal loss and reflection.
Present tailored ideal solutions: To meet different needs in application via giving a customizable design according to customer demands, such as high-frequency signal processing, high speed interface design, high-frequency inspection, etc.
Offer technical support and inspection service: Present signal completeness analysis, impedance test, high frequency inspection, and other services, aiming to help customers to verify design and enhance performance.

As a PCB high speed manufacturer in China, Best Technology is aiming to provide good quality printed circuit board high speed, and give proper solutions for high frequency signal optimization, impedance control, and EMI reduction to meet the demanding requirements of modern electronic systems. You’ll find these products in our lineup: high speed PCB, HDI PCB, high frequency PCB, and others. If you require high speed design PCB for the 5G communication, data center, high speed interface, or other high speed communication occasions, pls write an email to us for the BEST support at sales@bestpcbs.com.

What is printed circuit board high speed?

A high-speed printed circuit board (PCB) refers to a board used in circuits where signals change extremely rapidly, not just a PCB with a high operating frequency. When the signal switching is so fast that transmission line effects can no longer be ignored, the PCB is classified as high-speed. Here, “switching” specifically refers to the signal rise and fall edges.

What Is Transmission Line Effect?

One key aspect of high-speed PCB design is the transmission line effect:

Ordinary PCB: Traces are treated as simple connections, and designers generally do not need to consider delay, reflections, or impedance issues.
High-speed PCB: Traces act as transmission lines. Designers must carefully account for impedance matching, signal propagation delay, and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Improper design can cause signal distortion or timing errors.

What Are Signal Rise and Fall Edges?

To understand high-speed PCBs, it is important to know what rise and fall edges mean:

Rise edge: The transition of a signal from a low level to a high level.
Fall edge: The transition of a signal from a high level back to a low level.

These edges define how quickly a signal switches between voltage states, and their speed directly impacts the design requirements of the PCB.

Low and High Logic Levels

It is particularly important to know that digital circuits operate between two voltage states:

Low level (logic 0): Usually close to the ground potential, representing the “off” state.
High level (logic 1): At a higher voltage (for example, 3.3V or 5V), representing the “on” state.

The challenge in high-speed PCBs arises when signals switch very rapidly between low and high levels. The faster the rise and fall edges, the more the circuit behaves like it is operating in a high-frequency environment, which places stricter demands on layout and signal integrity.

Difference Between High-Frequency PCB and High-Speed PCB

The terms high-frequency and high-speed PCBs are often grouped together as “high-frequency high-speed PCBs”, but they have different focuses:

High-frequency PCB: Applied in RF and microwave circuits, operating above 300 MHz and often into the GHz range. Material requirements are strict, including dielectric constant (DK) and dissipation factor (DF). Common materials include PTFE. The design emphasis is on impedance control.
High-speed PCB: Applied in high-speed digital circuits. Even if the clock frequency is not extremely high, if the signal’s rise and fall edges are very fast, the board must be designed as high-speed. The design emphasis is on delay matching and signal integrity.

In summary, the distinction between high-frequency boards and high-speed boards is primarily based on application rather than material selection.

What are the features of high-speed signals in PCB?

1. Common High-Speed Interfaces

The most direct way to identify whether a PCB is high-speed is by checking the interfaces it supports.

High-speed: DDR4 memory (2400MT/s), PCIe 4.0 (16Gbps), USB 3.1 (10Gbps), HDMI 2.0 (18Gbps). These run at extremely fast speeds, with signal edges switching within a few hundred picoseconds.
👉 Example: DDR4 data lines toggle more than 10,000 times faster than a standard UART line.
Low-speed: UART (115.2kbps), I2C (400kHz), CAN bus (1Mbps). These protocols are much slower and do not impose strict PCB design requirements.

2. Clock Frequency and Data Rate

High-speed: Frequencies usually exceed 100MHz and data rates reach 1–10Gbps or more. For instance, PCIe 3.0 runs at 8Gbps per lane.
Low-speed: Frequencies typically stay below 50MHz with data rates in the kbps–Mbps range.

📖 Clock frequency = the number of signal cycles per second. Higher frequency means faster transitions, which makes the design more challenging.

3. Rise Time and Fall Time

The edge of a signal refers to the transition between low and high states.

High-speed: When rise/fall time is shorter than 500ps (0.5ns), the circuit must be treated as high-speed.
👉 Example: A 10cm PCB trace has ~0.6ns delay. If the signal edge is only 300ps, reflections will occur and special design rules are required.
Low-speed: Rise/fall times above 1–10ns. Even with longer traces, signal distortion is minimal.

📖 Reflection = part of the signal bounces back along the trace, like an echo, which can distort data.

4. Signal Propagation Speed

Signals in a PCB do not move at light speed. They typically travel at ~60% the speed of light, which is ~15cm/ns in FR4 material.

High-speed: A 30cm trace introduces ~2ns delay, which must be compensated in timing-sensitive designs like DDR.
Low-speed: If the signal period is much longer (tens of ns), this delay is negligible.

📖 FR4 = a common fiberglass epoxy board material, cost-effective but lossy at high frequencies.

5. Power Integrity Requirements

High-speed: Power supply must remain very stable. For DDR4 at 1.2V, even ±60mV noise may cause errors. Decoupling capacitors and solid power planes are required.
Low-speed: A 5V microcontroller may tolerate 5.2V supply without affecting UART signals.

📖 Decoupling capacitors = small capacitors placed near chips to absorb power noise and stabilize voltage.

6. Impedance Control and Reflections

High-speed: Controlled impedance is mandatory. USB 3.0 requires 90Ω differential impedance, HDMI needs 100Ω. Any deviation above ±10% causes reflections and data loss.
👉 Engineers use an eye diagram to measure quality. If the “eye” shape closes, the signal is unreadable.
Low-speed: Impedance variations have little effect; signals remain stable even without strict control.

📖 Differential impedance = the combined resistance seen by two complementary signals traveling together.

7. Crosstalk and EMI

High-speed: Closely spaced traces can interfere (crosstalk). For DDR, traces must be spaced at least three times their width. High-speed signals also radiate electromagnetic energy, causing EMI. Shielding and ground planes are essential.
Low-speed: Slower signals rarely affect nearby traces and produce little EMI.

📖 EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) = unwanted radiation from circuits that can disturb nearby devices.

8. Material and Process Sensitivity

High-speed: Advanced laminates like Rogers RO4350B (Dk=3.48, Df=0.0037) are often used. They minimize loss and distortion at multi-gigabit rates.
👉 Example: Using standard FR4 (Dk≈4.5, Df≈0.02) at 10Gbps results in severe waveform distortion and eye diagram closure.
Low-speed: FR4 is sufficient for microcontrollers, sensors, and control circuits with modest speeds.

📖 Dielectric constant (Dk) = how much slower signals travel in a material compared to vacuum. Loss factor (Df) = how much energy the signal loses as heat.

To conclude, high-speed PCBs are defined not just by frequency, but by how fast signals switch, how quickly they propagate, and how sensitive they are to layout, materials, and power supply. Key indicators include signal interfaces like DDR, PCIe, USB, and HDMI, clock frequencies above 100MHz, data rates in Gbps, and rise/fall times below 500ps. Compared with low-speed boards, high-speed designs require strict impedance control, careful trace spacing to reduce crosstalk, stable power distribution, and advanced low-loss materials to maintain signal integrity. Understanding these features helps engineers predict potential problems early and ensure reliable, high-performance circuits.

📖 In short: if your board has ultra-fast signals, tight timing requirements, and sensitive high-speed interfaces, treat it as a high-speed PCB and apply the proper design practices.

What are high speed PCB materials?

High-speed PCBs are used in circuits with high-frequency signals and fast data transmission, such as communication base stations, automotive systems, satellite communications, and military radar. Choosing the right material is crucial for signal integrity and low signal loss. Common high-speed PCB materials include Hydrocarbon Resin, PTFE, LCP (Liquid Crystal Polymer), and PPE/PPO.

1. Hydrocarbon Resin

Hydrocarbon resins are polymers composed of carbon and hydrogen, including styrene-butadiene copolymer, polystyrene, and styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer.

Key properties:

Excellent dielectric properties: Dk ≈ 2.4, Df ≈ 0.0002
High thermal resistance
Good chemical resistance

Applications: Suitable for microwave circuits and high-frequency communication modules.

2. PTFE Flexible Film

PTFE is a fluoropolymer with low dielectric constant and low signal loss, ideal for high-speed, high-frequency signals.

Processing methods: Molding, impregnation, extrusion, etc.

Modified PTFE: Enhanced with ceramic or glass fiber to improve mechanical strength and stability.

Applications: Used in millimeter-wave communication, 5G PCBs, satellite antennas, and radar modules.

Notes:

Millimeter-wave: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies from 30–300 GHz and wavelengths 1–10 mm.

3. LCP (Liquid Crystal Polymer)

LCP is a high-performance plastic combining liquid flow and crystalline molecular order, forming a “liquid crystal state”.

Properties:

Can flow when melted or dissolved but retains ordered molecular structure (anisotropic properties).
Three main types: multi-phenyl copolymers, naphthalene-containing, aliphatic chain segments.
Thermal resistance varies by type: Type I > Type II > Type III

Applications: High-speed interfaces (HDMI, USB 3.1, PCIe), antenna modules, and microwave circuits.

Notes:

Anisotropy: Material properties differ along different directions.
Liquid crystal state: Intermediate state between solid and liquid with ordered molecular alignment.

4. PPE/PPO (Polyphenylene Ether / Oxide)

PPE/PPO is a high-strength engineering plastic with rigid aromatic chains and methyl groups blocking reactive sites, providing high rigidity, thermal stability, and chemical resistance.

Properties:

Ether bonds add flexibility but reduce thermal resistance.
Hydrophobic, low water absorption, excellent dimensional stability, and insulation.
High viscosity; more difficult to process.

Applications: Used in high-speed PCBs requiring good insulation and stability, e.g., aerospace electronics and high-speed communication devices.

Notes:

Dimensional stability: Material size changes little with temperature or humidity.
Insulation: Prevents unwanted current flow, protecting signal quality.

Summary of Material Selection

High-speed PCB materials differ from standard FR4 boards in having:

Low dielectric constant (faster signal, lower loss)
Low loss (reduced signal attenuation)
High thermal stability
Good mechanical strength

They are widely applied in communication base stations (antennas, amplifiers, filters), automotive systems, satellite communications, satellite TV, military radar, and high-frequency communication devices. Material selection significantly impacts signal integrity, reflection, interference, and transmission loss, making it a critical factor in high-speed PCB design.

Material	Dielectric Constant (Dk)	Loss Tangent (Df)	Typical Frequency Range
Hydrocarbon Resin	2.4	0.0002	Up to ~10 GHz
PTFE	2.0–2.1	0.0009	Up to ~50 GHz
LCP	2.9–3.0	0.002	Up to ~40 GHz
PPE/PPO	2.6–2.8	0.002–0.003	Up to ~20 GHz

Table Notes

Dielectric Constant (Dk): Lower Dk allows faster signal propagation.
Loss Tangent (Df): Lower Df means less signal energy is lost during transmission.
Thermal Resistance: Lower value is better; material can conduct heat efficiently, keeping components cooler.
Processing Difficulty: Relative ranking of manufacturing complexity, including cutting, lamination, drilling, and copper plating.

High-speed PCB design guidelines

Before designing a PCB, it is essential to understand the difference between high-speed and low-speed PCBs.

Signal Frequency and Speed

Low-speed PCBs handle signals below tens of MHz, where trace length and impedance have little impact. Design mainly focuses on circuit functionality and reliability, with minimal EMI concerns. Typical uses include simple control boards and sensor interfaces.

High-speed PCBs operate from 100 MHz to several GHz, with fast rise/fall times. Signal integrity depends on trace length, routing, impedance, and stack-up. Applications include high-speed interfaces, 5G modules, and data acquisition, where precise signal control is critical.

Design Complexity

Low-speed PCB design is simple, with minimal EMI or crosstalk concerns. Focus is on power distribution, compact layout, and basic decoupling. Fewer layers and shorter design cycles are typical.

High-speed PCB design is complex. Signal integrity, power integrity, impedance control, differential pairs, multilayer stack-ups, and continuous ground planes are critical. Routing and placement directly affect performance, requiring simulation and strict design rules.

Here is the high-speed PCB design guidelines for your review.

1. Layout Planning

Shorten critical signal paths and avoid loops to reduce interference. Place clocks and high-speed traces first, keeping sensitive analog or low-frequency circuits separate. Keep high-speed traces near continuous ground planes, and avoid sharp turns or unnecessary zigzags to minimize reflection and crosstalk.

2. Impedance Control

Maintain consistent trace impedance for high-speed signals. Use microstrip or stripline structures depending on board layers, and calculate trace width, spacing, and dielectric thickness to meet target impedance.

Common Impedance Models:

50Ω single-ended: Widely used in RF and high-speed digital signals; matches common connectors, PCB traces, and IC I/O impedance.
90–100Ω differential: Used for USB, HDMI, Ethernet, and other high-speed differential signals; ensures differential consistency and reduces common-mode noise.

Avoid vias on critical paths and verify impedance continuity with design or simulation tools.

3. Ground Plane Design

Use a continuous ground plane to reduce noise and improve EMI performance. Ensure critical signal return paths follow the shortest route along uninterrupted ground. Keep power and ground planes close, and place decoupling capacitors near high-speed device power pins.

4. Component Selection

Use low-ESR capacitors for high-speed signals and avoid high-inductance components on critical paths. Choose high-frequency connectors for interfaces like USB3.0, PCIe, or HDMI. For GHz-level signals, consider low-loss materials (e.g., Rogers) to reduce signal attenuation.

5. Advanced Techniques

Microstrip vs. Stripline: Use stripline for critical high-speed signals for better shielding; microstrip can be used where layout flexibility is needed.
Differential Pairs: Maintain even spacing and matched lengths (within ~20 mils, 0.5 mm). Keep traces near ground planes and avoid excessive vias or splits.
Simulation: Use EDA tools (Altium, Cadence, HyperLynx) to check signal integrity, power integrity, crosstalk, and timing. Adjust trace length, impedance, differential pair layout, and decoupling based on simulation results.

Why use more copper in high speed PCB?

In high-speed PCB design, the amount and distribution of copper directly affect signal integrity, thermal performance, and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Key reasons for increasing copper usage include:

1. Improve Signal Integrity

Reduce impedance discontinuities: High-speed signals are sensitive to impedance changes. Thicker copper or additional copper pours help minimize transmission line impedance variations, preventing signal reflection.
Optimize return paths: A continuous ground plane (e.g., GND layer) provides low-impedance return paths for high-frequency signals, reducing crosstalk and noise.

2. Enhance Thermal Performance

High thermal conductivity: Copper’s thermal conductivity (~380 W/m·K) far exceeds FR4 (0.2–0.3 W/m·K), quickly dissipating chip heat and preventing performance degradation due to temperature rise.
Thermal stability: Copper substrates maintain dimensional stability under high temperatures (e.g., server CPUs), reducing thermal deformation effects on signal quality.

3. Improve Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

Shielding: Large copper pours (e.g., PGND) help shield external EMI and suppress internal signal radiation.
Reduce eddy current loss: High-frequency signals can induce circulating currents (eddy currents) in conductive planes. Proper copper distribution reduces these currents, minimizing energy loss and signal attenuation.

4. Support High-Density Routing

Multilayer stack-ups: High-speed PCBs often have 8 layers or more. Copper layers are used for power and ground planes, ensuring power integrity and signal isolation.
Plated through-holes (PTH): Copper in vias ensures reliable inter-layer connections with low resistance and minimal parasitic inductance.

5. Material and Process Considerations

High-frequency substrate integration: When combining Rogers and FR4, copper layers must match the low-loss characteristics of high-frequency materials (Df < 0.004).
Cost-performance balance: Full-copper substrates are expensive, but critical signal layers (e.g., RF channels) require copper to ensure performance.

In summary, increasing copper usage in high-speed PCBs is driven by signal integrity, thermal management, and EMC requirements. Optimizing copper thickness, copper pours, and stack-up design is essential for applications such as 5G and AI chips.

What are the applications of high speed PCB?

High-speed PCBs are specially designed circuit boards for high-speed signal transmission. They feature excellent high-frequency performance, low-noise characteristics, high-density capability, and superior overall performance. These boards are widely used across various industries.

1. Communication
High-speed PCBs are widely used in communication systems, including mobile networks, satellite communication, and optical communication. They enable fast signal transmission and processing, improving system performance and reliability.

2. Printed Circuit Boards for High Speed Computing
In the computing field, high-speed PCBs are essential for servers, storage devices, graphics cards, and other high-performance computing equipment. They ensure rapid signal transfer and processing, enhancing overall system efficiency and reliability.

3. Consumer Electronics
High-speed PCBs are commonly found in consumer electronics such as smartphones, tablets, and digital cameras. They support fast signal transmission and processing, boosting product performance and user experience.

4. Automotive Electronics
High-speed PCBs are applied in automotive systems, including engine control units, body control modules, and in-car entertainment systems. They provide reliable high-speed signal processing, enhancing automotive system performance.

5. Industrial Control
High-speed PCBs are used in industrial automation, robotics, and intelligent instrumentation. They enable fast and accurate signal processing, improving the efficiency and reliability of industrial control systems.

Each of these applications requires boards that manage both frequency and signal clarity without failure.

Where to get Best printed circuit board high speed?

Finding the Best printed circuit board high speed solution means choosing a supplier who understands material science, signal behavior, and precision manufacturing. Many companies face pain points like extended lead times, inconsistent quality, or lack of design support. At Best Technology, we solve these challenges with:

Quality Assurance: ISO 9001, ISO 13485, IATF 16949, and AS9100D certifications for strict quality assurance.
Technical Guidance: Professional technical support to review layouts and suggest improvements.
Cutting-edge Machine: Equipped with sophisticated equipment for high precision prototyping, manufacturing, and assembling different-layer printed circuit board high speed, such as 4 layer high speed PCB, 6 layer PCB stackup for high speed, and others.
Integrated Factory: Own original PCB and SMT factory to expedite the lead time more efficiently, saving communication costs and time.
Good Quality Supply Chain: Maintain a stable supply chain through partnerships with Tier 1 material suppliers like Rogers and Isola, ensuring continuous availability of high-frequency laminates, copper foils, and prepregs. Buffer stocks of critical components support rapid turnaround for high-speed PCB production.

With strong supply chain control and advanced machines, we deliver reliable high-speed PCBs that meet global standards. Customers gain not only a product but a trusted partner for long-term cooperation.

In a nutshell, printed circuit board high speed is very critical for the high-frequency signal integrity and electromagnetic compatibility in advanced electronics applications, where even minor impedance mismatches can lead to data corruption or system failures. So understanding its definition, characteristics, applications, selecting the right materials, and mastering the full knowledge of design will significantly enhance your project efficiency and ensure optimal performance in demanding electronic systems. If there’s any new inquiry, pls let us know via sales@bestpcbs.com. We will make our full engagement to give a satisfactory solution for you.

Tags:high speed pcb, printed circuit board high speed
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High Frequency Circuit Board Manufacturer, Rapid Prototyping

Thursday, September 11th, 2025

What is high frequency circuit board? Let’s discover its material, technical parameter, design guideline, production processes and recommended manufacturer.

Are you troubled with these issues?

Is phase distortion caused by unstable Dk/Df in your high-frequency design?
How to reduce HF material costs without compromising performance?
How to ensure material consistency from prototype to mass production?

As a high frequency PCB manufacturer, Best Technology can provide you service and solution:

Full-band Dk±0.02 Control: Phase error <1° across 24-77GHz, eliminating signal distortion.
Custom Ceramic Formulation: 40% lower loss, 50% cost saving vs PTFE.
Closed-loop Control System: <2% Dk variation in mass production, ensuring parameter consistency.

Welcome to contact us if you have any request for high frequency PCB board: sales@bestpcbs.com.

What Is High Frequency Circuit Board?

High Frequency Circuit Board is a printed circuit board specifically designed to handle high-frequency signals (such as RF, microwave, and high-speed digital signals). Its core features include the use of low dielectric loss materials (e.g., PTFE, ceramic-filled substrates) and optimized layout design to achieve low signal attenuation, high signal integrity, and stable electromagnetic performance. This meets the stringent requirements of high-speed transmission and low noise in high-frequency scenarios such as 5G communications, radar systems, and satellite equipment.

What is the Best Material for High Frequency Circuit Board?

PTFE-Based Composites (e.g., Rogers 4350B, RO4003C)

Features: Low dielectric constant (Dk ≈ 3.38–3.48), ultra-low dissipation factor (Df ≈ 0.002–0.0037), stable performance across GHz frequencies.
Applications: Ideal for microwave/millimeter-wave systems (5G antennas, radar modules)
Trade-offs: Higher cost and processing complexity (such as specialized drilling/etching techniques required).

Ceramic-Filled Substrates (e.g., Rogers RO4000 Series, Nelco N4000-13)

Features: Enhanced thermal conductivity (0.6–0.7 W/m·K), low moisture absorption, and mechanical robustness.
Applications: High-power RF amplifiers, automotive electronics (harsh environment resistance), and hybrid stack-ups with FR4 for cost optimization.
Trade-offs: Stiffer than PTFE, may require thermal management design adjustments.

Hydrocarbon/Ceramic Blends (e.g., Isola IS680, Panasonic Megtron Series)

Features: Balanced Dk (≈3.0–3.66) and Df (≈0.001–0.008), compatible with standard PCB fabrication processes.
Applications: High-speed digital/RF co-design (e.g., 5G base stations, satellite comms), offering a cost-performance compromise.
Trade-offs: Slightly higher Df than pure PTFE, limiting use in ultra-high-frequency (>50GHz) scenarios.

Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP)

Features: Ultra-low Dk (≈3.0), minimal moisture absorption, and flexible/rigid-flex compatibility.
Applications: Miniaturized wearables, millimeter-wave modules (e.g., 28/39GHz 5G front-ends), and aerospace systems.
Trade-offs: Premium pricing and limited availability for large-format boards.

High-Performance FR4 Variants (e.g., FR408HR)

Features: Improved Dk (≈3.66) and Df (≈0.008) over standard FR4, cost-effective for mid-range frequencies.
Applications: Budget-sensitive projects (e.g., IoT devices, low-tier RF systems) where FR4’s limitations are acceptable.
Trade-offs: Unsuitable for >10GHz applications due to signal attenuation and impedance mismatches.How to Make a High Frequency Circuit Board?

High Frequency Printed Circuit Board Technical Parameter

‌Parameter Category‌	‌Design Requirements‌
‌Substrate Material‌	PTFE/Ceramic-filled Hydrocarbon/Modified PPO
‌Dielectric Constant (Dk)‌	2.2~3.5 (±0.05 tolerance)
‌Dissipation Factor (Df)‌	≤0.002 (@10GHz)
‌Trace Width/Spacing‌	3mil/3mil (minimum)
‌Impedance Control‌	±5% (100% impedance testing)
‌Copper Foil Type‌	RTF/VLP (roughness ≤1.5μm)
‌Layer Alignment Tolerance‌	±25μm
‌Surface Finish‌	ENEPIG (Ni layer >0.1μm)
‌Insertion Loss‌	≤0.5dB/inch (@40GHz)
‌Phase Consistency‌	±2° (@25GHz differential pairs)

How to Design a High-Frequency PCB?

1. Requirement Analysis & Specification Definition

Frequency Range: 2.4GHz (Wi-Fi routers), 5GHz (5G base stations), millimeter wave (radar/satellite communications), different frequency bands correspond to different transmission characteristics;
Signal Type: Digital signals (e.g., DDR5 clock lines require precise timing), RF signals (5G antennas require low-loss transmission), mixed signals (AD/DA interfaces require noise immunity);
Power Level: High-power scenarios (>10W PA modules) require enhanced thermal design using metal substrates or thermal via arrays;
Interface Standard: PCIe 4.0 (16GT/s data rate), HDMI 2.1 (48Gbps bandwidth), USB 3.2 (20Gbps rate), ensuring interface compatibility and signal integrity;

2. Material Selection & Stackup Design

Material Type: PTFE substrate (Dk≈2.2, Df≈0.002, suitable for high-frequency), ceramic-filled substrate (Dk≈3.0-10, Df≤0.001, high-power scenarios), high-speed FR4 (Dk≈3.66, Df≈0.008, cost-sensitive);
Stackup Design: Signal layer-ground layer-power layer alternating arrangement, high-frequency signal layers adjacent to ground layers to reduce crosstalk, ground layers must be continuous without splits;
Dielectric Thickness: Thin dielectrics (3-5mil) for high-frequency bands (>10GHz, e.g., RO4350B), 8-12mil for mid/low-frequency;
Copper Thickness: ≥1oz (35μm) for high-frequency signal layers to reduce loss, ≥2oz (70μm) for ground layers to enhance heat dissipation, power layers adjusted based on current requirements.

3. Layout Planning & Component Placement

Components: RF modules (e.g., LNA, PA) placed near antennas to minimize transmission loss, high-speed chips (e.g., FPGA, CPU) placed near connectors to shorten signal paths;
Signal Path: Minimize length of high-frequency signal lines, avoid 90-degree corners (use 135-degree or curved routing), serpentine routing compensates DDR clock line timing deviations (length matching error ≤5mil);
Thermal Management: Thermal vias (≥10mil diameter) under high-power components or metal substrates (e.g., Aluminum PCB) to prevent hotspots;
EMC: Sensitive components (e.g., crystals) kept away from noise sources (e.g., switching power supplies), high-frequency regions isolated with dedicated power supplies and filtering capacitors.

4. Routing Design & Impedance Control

Differential Pair: Impedance strictly controlled at 100Ω (e.g., USB 3.0/PCIe), trace width/spacing ratio 1:1 (e.g., 5mil/5mil), length matching error ≤5mil;
Microstrip/Stripline: 50Ω RF signal lines (trace width ≈8mil, dielectric thickness ≈5mil), 75Ω video signal lines (trace width ≈12mil), high-frequency lines avoid crossing split planes;
Minimum Trace Spacing: ≥3× trace width (e.g., 5mil trace width requires ≥15mil spacing) to suppress crosstalk, high-frequency line spacing ≥λ/10 (e.g., 5GHz signal λ=60mm, spacing ≥6mm);
Crossing Split Planes: High-frequency signal lines crossing split planes bridged via capacitors or vias to reduce reflections/radiation.

5. EMC Optimization

Ground Via: Array spacing ≤λ/10 (e.g., 5GHz signal λ=60mm, via spacing ≤6mm) for low-impedance ground paths;
Shielding Structure: Metal cavities (thickness ≥0.2mm) or shielding layers (copper foil + conductive adhesive) to suppress resonances and electromagnetic radiation, high-frequency regions shielded independently;
Decoupling Capacitor: 0.1μF (high-frequency) + 10μF (low-frequency) paralleled near power pins (≤5mm) to reduce power noise;
Filter: LC filters (e.g., π-network) suppress power noise, ferrite beads absorb high-frequency noise for signal purity.

6. Simulation Verification & Iteration

Frequency Domain Simulation: ADS/HFSS analyze S-parameters (return loss ≤-10dB, insertion loss ≤1dB), radiation patterns (antenna optimization);
Time Domain Simulation: SIwave/Altium verify signal integrity (eye diagram openness ≥80%, crosstalk ≤5%) for high-speed digital signals;
3D EM Simulation: CST Microwave Studio evaluates antenna performance, radiation leakage, and coupling effects to optimize layout/shielding;
Iteration: Adjust layout/routing (e.g., add shielding, optimize impedance) based on simulation results until performance metrics are met.

7. Manufacturing Process Control & Testing

Lamination Process: Precise control of dielectric thickness (tolerance ≤±5%) to avoid delamination and bubbles;
Drilling Process: Microvia (0.15mm) copper plating uniformity (thickness variation ≤10%) to prevent via wall fractures and conductivity issues;
Impedance Testing: TDR verifies impedance matching (error ≤±5%) for signal quality;
Eye Diagram Testing: High-speed digital signal eye diagram analysis (eye height ≥800mV, eye width ≥80%UI), radiation scanning (anechoic chamber) confirms EMI compliance to regulatory standards.

How to Make a High Frequency Circuit Board?

1. Material Cutting & Selection: Select low-loss substrates (e.g., PTFE, ceramic-filled substrates), cut panels to design specifications, ensure clean edges without burrs to prevent stress cracks or signal transmission loss in subsequent processes.

2. Inner Layer Pattern Transfer: Use high-precision exposure machine (resolution ≤5μm) for inner layer pattern transfer, precisely remove excess copper with alkaline etching solution, control line width/spacing tolerance within ±10μm to ensure high-frequency signal path accuracy.

3. Lamination & Stacking: Stack multilayer boards and perform vacuum lamination, strictly control temperature (180-200℃) and pressure (300-500PSI) profiles to avoid interlayer bubbles or uneven dielectric thickness, ensuring impedance stability for high-frequency signal transmission.

4. Drilling & Plating: Use precision drill bit (hole diameter tolerance ±2μm) for through-hole/blind via drilling, control copper plating uniformity (thickness variation ≤10%) to prevent via cracking or conductivity issues, ensuring high-quality vertical interconnection for high-frequency signals.

5. Outer Layer Pattern Transfer: After copper plating thickening, transfer outer layer patterns, optimize line width/spacing (e.g., 50Ω microstrip requires precise matching of dielectric thickness and copper thickness) using impedance calculation software to ensure consistent impedance for high-frequency signal transmission.

6. Solder Mask Application: Apply liquid photo-imageable solder mask ink, form protective layer through exposure/development, reduce signal transmission loss and surface contamination, avoid excessive solder mask thickness affecting high-frequency signal radiation efficiency.

7. Surface Finish: Apply ENIG (Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold) or OSP (Organic Solderability Preservative) surface finish to enhance solderability and long-term reliability, prevent oxidation affecting high-frequency signal conductivity, ensuring solder joint quality and product longevity.

8. Testing & Verification: Perform TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry) for impedance matching (error ≤±5%), eye diagram analysis (eye height/width meets standards), radiation scanning (anechoic chamber testing for EMI compliance) to ensure high-frequency signal integrity and regulatory adherence.

9. Packaging & Shipping: Vacuum-pack for moisture/dust protection, include quality inspection report and material certificate (e.g., Dk/Df test data), ensure safe transportation and traceability, maintaining high-frequency PCB performance stability in real-world applications.

How to Make a High Frequency Circuit Board?

Why Choose Best Technology as High Frequency Circuit Board Manufacturer?

Reasons why choose us as high frequency circuit board manufacturer:

19-Year High Frequency PCB Manufacturing Expertise – Specialized in PTFE/hydrocarbon processing with core technologies (microvias, buried blind holes, hybrid pressing). Completed 5,000+ High Frequency PCB projects across 5G/radar/satellite.
Certified Quality System – ISO 9001/14001/IATF 16949 certified, RoHS/REACH compliant. Regular customer/third-party audits maintain system effectiveness.
Transparent Pricing & Cost Optimization – Leverage bulk procurement for raw material savings and lean production to minimize waste. Tiered pricing ensures industry-leading competitiveness with no hidden fees.
48-72 Hours Rapid Prototyping – Mature production lines + smart scheduling enable 7-10 day standard delivery, with urgent orders achievable in 2-3 days. Optimized supply chain ensures project timelines.
Full-Cycle Technical Support – Free DFM analysis, in-process optimization, and post-sales troubleshooting. 24/7 engineer team resolves issues within 48 hours.
Strict Quality Control – Raw material inspection, in-process IPQC, final AOI, environmental testing, impedance microsection, and third-party audits. Defect rate <0.3% surpasses industry norms.
Customization Flexibility – Supports any-layer HDI design, custom impedance (50Ω±2%), finishes (ENIG/OSP), and thicknesses (0.1-3.0mm) for tailored solutions.
Experience-Driven Problem Solving – 19-year fault database enables rapid diagnosis of common issues (e.g., signal loss, layer misalignment) with solutions to accelerate time-to-market.

Below is a photo of high frequency high frequency circuit board we made before:

Why Choose Best Technology as High Frequency Circuit Board Manufacturer?

Our High Frequency PCB Capabilities

Base material:	Rogers/Telfon
Board Thickness:	0.5mm~3.0mm(0.02″~0.12″)
Copper thickness:	0.5 OZ, 1.0 OZ, 2.0 OZ, 3.0 OZ
Outline:	Routing, punching, V-Cut
Soldermask:	White/Black/Blue/Green/Red Oil
Legend/Silkscreen Color:	Black/White
Surface finishing:	Immersion Gold, HASL, OSP
Max Panel size:	600500mm(23.62″19.68″)
Packing:	Vacuum/Plastic bag
Samples L/T:	7~9 Days
MP L/T:	8~10 Days

How to Get a Quote for Your Project?

List of materials required for quotation:

Gerber files: Complete hierarchical data to ensure the design is complete.
Design files: Original files in Altium/OrCAD format, reproducing layout details.
BOM: Clearly specify component model, package, quantity, and supplier.
Technical parameters: Dimensions, number of layers, line width/space, aperture, and board thickness.
Material and process: Substrate type (e.g., PTFE), surface finish (ENIG), and copper thickness.
Impedance requirements: Target value (e.g., 50Ω) and signal integrity indicators.
Testing standards: Acceptance criteria such as impedance, eye diagrams, and radiation scans.
Quantity and delivery: Order size and expected delivery time.
Certification standards: Quality (e.g., IPC) and environmental (e.g., RoHS) compliance certifications.

Welcome to submit your files to get a quote via this email: sales@bestpcbs.com.

Tags:high frequency circuit board, high frequency pcb
Posted in best pcb, bestpcb, RF Board, Special PCB | No Comments »

HDI PCB Manufacturer, HDI PCB Fabrication Process

Wednesday, September 10th, 2025

As an HDI PCB manufacturer, Best Technology understands the importance of reliable, high-quality HDI PCBs for modern electronics. The core content of this blog revolves around the definition, features of the HDI board, and the HDI PCB manufacturing process.

Some customers face the following issues when doing the HDI printed circuit boards project with their HDI PCB manufacturers. Are you also dealing with these frustrating problems?

Extended lead times and the delayed delivery time from a certain HDI PCB manufacturer?

High cost and its impact on some cost-sensitive projects?

Product defect due to poor manufacturing precision?

There are some difficulties in customizable design, size, material, and other aspects, so it is difficult to meet the specific needs of your orders?

Here’s our game plan for dealing with those tricky problems.

Boost manufacturing process and shorten delivery schedule: The production efficiency can be improved by elevating the HDI PCB manufacturing process and using automatic devices. Finally, to shorten the entire fabrication lead time.

Optimize the cost structure and improve the cost efficiency: We can lower the unit cost by standard design, mass production, and material selection optimization.

Increase the manufacturing precision and improve product quality: Adopt high-precision equipment, such as a laser drilling machine, AOI inspection equipment, and a rigorous quality control process to ensure product consistency.

Boost customizable capability: provide the tailored manufacturing service according to customers’ Gerber files and needs.

As an ODM & OEM HDI circuit boards manufacturer, we have our own high density interconnect PCB factory in China, and we have been selling high-density PCBs in a perfectly competitive market for over 19 years. Our customer vary from countries to countries. Last year, our biggest selling volume is to the USA, Germany, and Israel, and others. We have abundant experience in solving different issues for customer’s projects. If you need to find a reliable manufacturers for HDI PCB fabrication services, just make contact with us via sales@bestpcbs.com.

HDI PCB Manufacturer, HDI PCB Fabrication Process

What is HDI PCB?

The full name of HDI PCB is high-density interconnect PCB. Put it simply, it refers to a multilayer PCB produced using build-up techniques and microvias. In simple terms, it starts with a core board—with or without plated through holes (PTH)—made by conventional methods. Fine circuits and microvias are then added to the outer layers to create build-up layers, ultimately forming a multilayer board.

To better understand how HDI PCBs achieve high-density interconnections, it’s useful to first look at the different types of vias used in these boards.

Via hole: It is a general term for all layer-to-layer holes, including Through Holes, Blind Vias, Buried Vias, and Microvias.

Microvia: In the PCB industry, any hole with a diameter smaller than 150 µm (6 mil) is classified as a microvia. It is very small via for HDI PCBs, can be blind, buried, or through.

Buried via: A buried via is located within the inner layers and is typically invisible in the finished PCB. Compared with through-holes, its main advantage is that it does not occupy surface space, allowing more components to be placed on the PCB’s surface.

Blind via: A blind via is visible on the finished PCB but only from one side. Unlike through-holes, which are visible from both the top and bottom, blind vias allow routing underneath the via location while saving surface area for components.

Through Hole: A through hole is a type of via hole that passes through the entire PCB. In other words, all through holes are via holes, but not all via holes are through holes. Via holes can also include blind vias and buried vias, which only connect some layers of the PCB rather than the entire board, allowing for higher-density layouts. When a through hole is plated with copper, it is called a PTH and is used for electrical connections. If it is not plated, it is called an NPTH and serves mainly mechanical purposes.

Via Type	Typical Min. Diameter	Layer Connection	Common Use Case
Via Hole	N/A	Any layers	General layer-to-layer interconnection
Microvia	≤ 150 µm (6 mil)	Outer to inner (1 layer)	High-density routing
Blind Via	75–200 µm	Outer to inner (partial)	Space-saving design
Buried Via	100–200 µm	Inner to inner only	Inner layer connection
Through PTH	≥ 200 µm	All layers	Signal & power transfer
Through NPTH	≥ 200 µm	No electrical connection	Mechanical fixing

What is the Difference Between HDI PCB and Conventional PCB?

1. Layer Structure

HDI PCB: Uses multiple build-up layers with microvias, blind vias, and buried vias, allowing higher interconnect density in a compact design.
Conventional PCB: Relies on through-hole vias across the entire board with simpler stack-up, suitable for less dense layouts.

2. Fine Line Width and Spacing

HDI PCB: Supports ultra-fine lines and spaces, often down to 50–75 microns, enabling high-density routing.
Conventional PCB: Uses wider traces and spacing, which limits circuit miniaturization.

3. Process Technology

HDI PCB: Requires laser drilling, sequential lamination, and via-in-pad technology for advanced designs.
Conventional PCB: Uses mechanical drilling and traditional lamination, easier to fabricate for general applications.

4. Base Materials

HDI PCB: Employs high-performance laminates with low Dk/Df for better high-frequency performance and thermal stability.
Conventional PCB: Commonly made with standard FR4, good enough for most consumer and industrial electronics.

5. Manufacturing Cost

HDI PCB: Higher cost due to extra processes, fine features, and strict material requirements.
Conventional PCB: More cost-effective, especially for low-to-medium complexity products.

6. Application Scenarios

HDI PCB: Found in smartphones, tablets, medical devices, automotive electronics, and aerospace where size and performance are critical.
Conventional PCB: Used in home appliances, industrial controls, and products that don’t need very high density.

Structural Characteristics of HDI Blind Vias

High-Density Interconnect (HDI) PCBs are characterized by their use of blind vias, which connect outer layers to one or more inner layers without passing through the entire board. The structural configuration of HDI boards is typically described using a notation like a+N+a or a+N+N+a, where each element represents a specific part of the board:

“a” – Build-up Layer: These are the additional layers added on top of the core to achieve higher wiring density. Each build-up is considered a stage: a single build-up is first-order, two sequential build-ups are second-order, and three build-ups constitute third-order.
“N” – Core Layer: This is the central layer of the PCB that provides mechanical support and basic circuitry.

Some common HDI structures include:

1+N+1: One build-up layer on each side of the core.
1+N+N+1: One build-up on each side with an additional core layer in the middle.
2+N+2: Two build-up layers on each side of the core.
2+N+N+2: Two build-up layers on each side with an extra core layer in between.
3+N+3: Three build-up layers on each side of the core.
3+N+N+3: Three build-up layers on each side with an extra core layer in the center.

These configurations allow for greater routing density, smaller via sizes, and more compact designs. The use of blind vias reduces signal loss, minimizes board thickness, and enables complex circuitry integration without increasing the overall PCB size. By carefully selecting the build-up and core combination, designers can optimize signal integrity and maintain mechanical stability in advanced electronic devices.

Where to Get HDI PCB Manufacturer in China for PCB Fabrication and Assembly?

China is renowned for its manufacturing capacity, offering a greater range of HDI PCB fabrication and assembly services. When looking for a reliable HDI PCB manufacturer, it’s important to understand the market landscape first.

HDI Boards Market Overview
HDI PCB factories in China are concentrated in several key regions:

Shenzhen and Guangdong Province: Known for high-tech electronics and fast-turn advanced HDI PCB manufacturing.
Jiangsu and Zhejiang Province: Strong in medium to large-scale production, including rigid-flex HDI PCB boards and multi-layer high density interconnect PCBs.
Other regions: Specialized factories exist in cities like Shanghai, Tianjin, and Beijing, focusing on niche or high-end HDI PCB fabrication.

Channels to Get Original China HDI PCB Manufacturer

Trade shows and electronics exhibitions – opportunities to see HDI PCB fabrication capabilities firsthand.
Online B2B platforms and directories – such as Alibaba and Global Sources, offer a large range of manufacturers that provide HDI PCB assembly manufacturing and other services.
Industry referrals and engineering networks – recommended by partners who have experience with hdi pcb electronics manufacturing.

Types of HDI PCB Manufacturers in China

Professional HDI factories: Focus solely on HDI boards, often equipped with blind buried vias HDI PCB manufacturing, laser drilling, microvia technology, and sequential lamination. Ideal for high quality HDI PCB for electronics circuit boards and HDI PCB prototype manufacturing.
General PCB manufacturers: Handle a variety of PCB types including HDI, but may have limitations on microvia precision or layer count. Suitable for medium-complexity designs and any PCB layer HDI manufacturers.
OEM/ODM factories: Offer full services from design to assembly, including 3 step HDI PCB manufacturers or smart robot rigid-flex PCB board HDI board manufacturing, often supporting volume production for global electronics brands.

Best Technology Advantages
When choosing HDI PCBs manufacturers, working with a PCB HDI company that addresses common customer pain points is key. Best Technology stands out with:

Advanced Manufacturing Capabilities: Supports multi-layer HDI PCB boards, HDI via PCB manufacturing, rigid-flex HDI PCB boards, and high density PCB designs.
Original high density interconnect PCBs and SMT Factories: We have original HDI fabrication and SMT factories in China for PCB Fabrication and Assembly. And our ISO9001, IATF16949, ISO13485, and AS9100D certifications ensure strict process control and reliability in our own HDI PCB manufacturing and PCBA factories.
Professional Engineering Support: HDI PCB design for manufacturability guide, layout optimization, and rapid prototyping minimize rework and maximize performance.
Flexible Delivery: Solutions tailored for both small and large volume production, with reliable HDI PCB electronics manufacturing quality and reliable lead times.

In summary, finding the right China leading HDI PCB manufacturer for electronics industry involves understanding the regional landscape, knowing the types of factories available, and selecting a partner who can provide both technical expertise and dependable production. With advanced capabilities, rigorous quality control, and customer-focused service, Best Technology ensures your high density interconnect PCB projects are executed efficiently, reliably, and with consistent high quality.

Step-by-Step HDI PCB Fabrication Process

Best Technology follows a meticulous multi-stage approach to ensure the quality, reliability, and performance of every HDI board. Below is our 3 step HDI PCB fabrication process for your reference. As a 3 step HDI PCB manufacturer, Best Technology leverages advanced laser drilling, sequential lamination, and microvia filling technologies to achieve high-density interconnects with exceptional precision.

Step 1: Material Preparation (Cutting)

Copper-clad laminates are cut into required panel sizes. Material properties such as thickness, CTE, and moisture absorption are carefully checked to ensure dimensional stability during subsequent processes. Pre-baking is often performed to remove absorbed moisture.

Step 2: Inner Layer Imaging

Photoresist is applied to the core, then exposed through a phototool to define fine circuit patterns. Strict control of exposure alignment and development ensures accurate line width and spacing.

Step 3: Automated Optical Inspection (AOI)

Inner layer circuits are inspected with AOI to detect defects such as opens, shorts, and over-etched lines. Any defects are repaired or flagged before proceeding to lamination.

Step 4: Lamination

The prepared inner layers are stacked with prepreg and copper foil, then laminated under high temperature and pressure. Vacuum lamination ensures strong bonding, minimal voids, and proper registration between layers.

Step 5: Copper Reduction (7–9 μm)

Controlled etching reduces copper thickness to the target range of 7–9 μm. This step is crucial for achieving fine line resolution and impedance stability in HDI structures.

Step 6: Laser Drilling (3–5 mil Holes)

Microvias are drilled using a CO₂ or UV laser. Hole diameters range from 3 mil to 5 mil depending on design requirements. Laser parameters are adjusted to ensure clean via walls and accurate depth control.

Step 7: Mechanical Drilling (Through-Holes, Aspect Ratio ≤5:1)

Through-holes are drilled mechanically, with the aspect ratio controlled to be ≤5:1. Drill bit wear and hole wall quality are closely monitored to avoid defects like burrs or smear.

Step 8: Electroless Copper Deposition

A thin conductive seed layer is deposited inside all drilled holes and via walls by electroless copper plating. This creates the foundation for subsequent electroplating.

Step 9: Hole Filling (Blind Via, ≤25 μm Copper Growth)

Blind vias are filled with conductive copper plating. Copper growth is controlled to ≤25 μm to maintain surface flatness, which is critical for further lamination and circuit imaging.

Step 10: Inner Layer Imaging (Repeated)

The next layer of circuitry is defined by repeating the photoresist coating, UV exposure, and development process. Alignment to buried features is precisely maintained.

Step 11: AOI

Each newly imaged layer undergoes AOI to confirm circuit accuracy before additional lamination steps.

Step 12: Lamination (Second Build-Up)

Another lamination cycle is carried out to stack additional layers. Temperature, pressure, and alignment are controlled to ensure reliability and dimensional stability.

Step 13: Copper Reduction

Etching is performed again to refine copper thickness to the design requirements, ensuring consistent trace definition.

Step 14: Laser Drilling

New microvias are laser-drilled to connect to the previously built-up layer. Registration accuracy is carefully monitored to avoid misaligned stacked vias.

Step 15: Electroless Copper Deposition

Copper seed layers are deposited again inside the new vias and on the panel surface to ensure complete metallization.

Step 16: Hole Filling

The newly created blind vias are filled and planarized, maintaining a smooth surface for further processing.

Step 17: Inner Layer Imaging (Third Build-Up)

The third sequence of inner layer circuit imaging is performed. High precision alignment is required as this is the final build-up before outer layer processing.

Step 18: AOI

AOI checks for defects such as misregistration, broken lines, and incomplete filling to guarantee layer reliability.

Step 19: Lamination (Final Build-Up)

All layers are consolidated in a final lamination cycle. Rigorous control of warpage and shrinkage is performed to meet high-density tolerances.

Step 20: Copper Reduction

The outer copper is reduced to the design thickness to prepare for outer layer circuit definition.

Step 21: Laser Drilling

Outer microvias are laser-drilled, connecting the final build-up layers to the outer copper surface. Alignment to internal features is verified.

Step 22: Mechanical Drilling

Final through-holes, tooling holes, and mounting holes are mechanically drilled with tight tolerance control.

Step 23: Electroless Copper Deposition

All newly drilled vias and holes receive electroless copper plating to establish a uniform conductive seed layer.

Step 24: Hole Filling

Any blind or buried vias requiring filling are processed and planarized to maintain surface flatness for solder mask application.

Step 25: Outer Layer Imaging

Outer layers are coated with photoresist and exposed with phototools to define final circuit traces and pads. Alignment is critical to match buried vias and inner layers.

Step 26: Etching

Unwanted copper is etched away, leaving the final outer layer circuitry with precise line width and spacing.

Step 27: AOI

Final AOI verifies the outer layer circuitry. Any defects are flagged, repaired, or scrapped based on quality requirements.

Step 28: Solder Mask Application

A solder mask layer is applied and imaged to protect circuits and define solderable pads. Adhesion, thickness, and registration are carefully checked.

Step 29: Silkscreen Printing

Component markings and reference designators are printed. Clarity, durability, and positioning are validated for assembly readability.

Step 30: Surface Finishing (ENIG / Gold Plating)

Surface finishes such as ENIG (Electroless Nickel Immersion Gold) are applied to exposed copper pads to improve solderability and oxidation resistance.

Step 31: Board Profiling

The panels are routed or V-scored into final board shapes. Dimensional accuracy and edge quality are inspected.

Step 32: Electrical Testing

Every PCB undergoes electrical testing to confirm there are no shorts, opens, or resistance anomalies. Test results are documented for traceability.

Step 33: Final Inspection

The finished boards are inspected for surface quality, dimensional accuracy, and compliance with customer specifications. Only fully qualified boards proceed to packaging.

In a nutshell, step-by-step HDI PCB fabrication process relies on precise layer build-up and meticulous interconnection control to ensure performance and reliability. Strict attention to line width and spacing, via aspect ratio, stacked via alignment, and substrate dimensional stability is essential throughout the above fabrication process.

Best Practices of Selecting the Right HDI PCB Supplier

Selecting the right HDI PCB supplier directly impacts your product development timeline, cost, and overall project success. HDI PCBs involve complex processes such as microvias, buried vias, high-layer stacking, and fine-line routing. A supplier lacking experience may lead to rework, delayed delivery, or substandard performance. A reliable supplier not only delivers high-quality boards but also provides technical support during design and manufacturing, helping you reduce risk and bring your product to market on time. But how to choose a supplier and manage Risk?

Evaluating HDI PCB suppliers should focus on four key areas.

Technical Capability
- Number of layers and minimum line/space they can handle.
- Microvia and buried via manufacturing experience.
- Experience with complex designs and HDI stackups.
- Suppliers with strong technical skills can anticipate design issues and offer solutions.
Delivery Reliability
- Production capacity and ability to handle urgent orders.
- Historical on-time delivery records.
- Clear timelines and buffers to minimize project delays.
Quality Control
- Certifications such as ISO9001, IPC standards, IATF16949 (automotive), ISO13485 (medical).
- Process control and testing methods like AOI, flying probe, and electrical testing.
- Consistent quality reduces rework and overall project costs.
Service and Support
- Responsiveness to technical questions and project updates.
- Engineering support for DFM reviews, material selection, and design feedback.
- Smooth communication helps resolve issues quickly and efficiently.

How to quickly determine if a supplier matches your project requirements? Here’s a practical approach.

Initial Screening
- Gather technical data, certifications, and case studies.
- Check if the supplier can handle your layer count, microvia technology, and fine-line designs.
Prototype Testing
- Place a sample order to test manufacturing accuracy, dimensional tolerances, and electrical performance.
- Sample results are a key reference for supplier reliability.
Factory Audit (Optional)
- Inspect production environment, equipment, quality management, and process workflow.
- Meet engineering team to discuss technical and production details.
Formal Partnership
- Select suppliers verified through prototyping and/or audits.
- Establish a clear contract outlining quality, delivery, and technical support requirements.

Here are the actionable steps for your review.

Initial Screening: Collect supplier information, verify technical capabilities, certifications, and past projects.
Prototype Validation: Place sample orders and test manufacturing precision and functionality.
Factory Audit: Confirm production capacity, quality management, and engineering support.
Evaluation and Decision: Score suppliers based on technical capability, delivery, quality, and service.
Formal Agreement: Sign contracts that define responsibilities, standards, and service expectations.

To sum up, by following these steps, users can systematically select the right HDI PCB supplier, minimize risk, and improve the likelihood of project success.

Case About HDI PCB Fabrication in Best Technology

As one of any PCB layer HDI manufacturers in China, Best Technology provides high quality HDI PCB electronics manufacturing and PCBA service. Here are some of our HDI printed circuit boards’ parameters and pictures for your reference.

6 Layers HDI (1+4+1) 4G Module PCB Parameters

HDI (1+4+1)
4G module PCB
6 layers FR4 PCBDrill depth control (0.8mm: L1-L3, L6-L3)
Minmum line width/space: 4/4mil
0.1mm Via
ENIG
Green Oil

Case About HDI PCB Fabrication in Best Technology

6 Layers HDI (1+4+1) Half Hole Plated PCB Parameters

HDI (1+4+1)
Half plated hole
0.10mm Buried & Blind Via
0.15mm trace width & space
Multi-layer FR4 PCB
ENIG
Green Oil
White silkscreen

All in all, choosing the right HDI PCB manufacturer is critical for modern electronics projects. Best Technology combines robust HDI PCB fabrication processes, global sourcing, and comprehensive design support to eliminate common customer challenges. Our commitment to precise manufacturing, responsive support, and practical solutions builds trust and drives successful project outcomes for our customers worldwide. If you are finding China leading HDI PCB manufacturer for electronics industry, just contact Best Technology at sales@bestpcbs.com. We are always here to give you practical solutions.

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